Indus River Essay Example for Free

Indus River EssayThe Indus and gang river valleys are ideal locations for early settlements. Some of the reasons are good water supply, good farmland, and rivers for trade. And those are honest some of the reasons people choose to live there. Why were the Indus and Ganges river valleys ideal locations for early settlement? They were ideal because they were ideal because they were by rivers so you would always book drinking water. The valleys also had some of the best farmland. The farmland was so fertile because, the snow on the mountains would melt and flood the rivers, so the silt would make the country fertile. They were also ideal because you could use the rivers for trading.How were the Indus and Ganges river valleys affected by the land nearby? They were affected by the mountains because, the melted ice carried down from the mountains to provide a good supply of water. The mountains affected the Indus and Ganges river valleys in bad ways also. In the fall they got their heaviest rains so the rivers flooded destroying the crops on the banks of the rivers.Another physical characteristic that is UNSUITABLE is the Thar Desert. It is unsuitable because the only time there is water is during monsoon season. Well, actually there is water but you might cast off to walk for days to examine it. You also would be at risk of no food because the only animals that live in the Thar Desert are lizards, snakes, gazelles, quail, ducks, and geese.Another UNSUITABLE physical indication is the Himalaya Mountains. The Himalayas are unsuitable because fierce storms can dump ten feet of snow at a time on one area. Another reason is you have no food because nothing wants to live in the cold mountains. You also have no water, and when you get to the timberline you will need an oxygen tank.The Indus and Ganges river valleys are ideal locations for early settlements. Some of the reasons are good water supply, good farmland, and rivers for trade. And those are just some of the reasons people choose to live there. If I had to choose somewhere to live in ancient India I would choose the Indus and Ganges river valleys.

The European Union Essay Example for Free

The European aggregate EssayThe decisions and procedures of the institutions of the EU subscribe failed to achieve the objective of the European Union to promote nation in Europe and there is a lack of legitimacy and accountability. Moreoer, the proposed European Constitutional Treaty was rejected in referendums conducted in France and the Netherlands. Opinion polls have clearly indicated that citizens of Europe argon showing indifference and hostility towards the functioning of the European Unions institutions and its policies .The principal decision making institutions of the EU are the European Parliament and the European Commission, whose members are elected democratically. Legislations proposed by the Commission to the Council are carried out in order to implement the policies of the EU . The Commission dominates over the other institutions of the EU due to its exclusive competence in the executive. National Parliaments face considerable difficulty in complying with the controls and regulations of the EC.In addition, most of the technical and mingled issues have to comply with regulations made by the committees, which consist of technocrats rather than democratic institutions. Moreover, interpretation of the directives and regulations issued by the EC is difficult and requires a deep understanding of the ECJs case jurisprudence. Furthermore, Community law overrides national legislation and national courts have to seek the ECJs intervention, while interpreting EU law. In addition, the EU law supersedes primary legislation .The European Commission implements its policies and legislative acts through the process of comitology in which experts from Member States and representatives of the Commission participate. The goal of this process is to enforce supranationalism . However, comitology fails to provide decisional shore leave to the Member States, does not interact with the affected parties who do not have any representation. The net effect is th at comitology impedes legitimate governance .Without scrutiny and review of the affected parties representations, there can be no compliance with the democratic spirit . The European Parliament was endowed with deliberative qualities and represents the entire European population, which rendered it undemocratic. The European Union is an intricate combination of several frameworks such as the parliamentary system and the regulatory structure. The ECJ, which was instrumental in establishing the EU, strives hard to promote democracy in the EU .BIBLIOGRAPHY1.Democracy within the European Community, 11 October, 2007, http//www. revision-notes. co. uk/revision/892. html. 2. Erik Oddvar Eriksen and John Erik Fossum, Democracy through strong publics in the European Union? , 11 October, 2007, http//www. arena. uio. no/publications/wp01_16. htm. 3. Joerges, C. and Vos, E. EU Committees social Regulation, Law and Politics, Oxford Hart Publishing, 1999. 4. Professor Vernon Bogdanor, Legitimacy, Accountability And Democracy, January 2007, 11, October, 2007, http//www. fedtrust. co. uk/admin/uploads/FedT_LAD. pdf.

Analysis of the DOTS Programme in Nigeria

Analysis of the DOTS Programme in NigeriaChapter One1.0Introduction to TBCharacteristics of terabyte tebibyte is a distemper caused by the bacteria cognise as Mycobacterium tuberculosis.1 Mycobacterium tuberculosis was identified in 1882 by Robert Koch.2 It is an acid-fast boron and obligate aerobe which grows in intimately 15 to 30 days at atemperature of 35 to 37 degrees centigrade in an enriched media with a mode treadly acid bagful medium.It has no natural reservoir and its antigenic decorousties are similar to the leprosy bacillus, the Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) and other typical types of mycobacterium3.M. tuberculosis is pathogenic and virulent in nature. Its ability to cause disease depends on the susceptibility of the server as well as the aggressiveness of the invading organism4 . An electron s evict of the bacterium is highlighted below5Considered one of the most dreaded diseases of the nineteenth and 20th centuries, TB was the 8th leading cause of death in ch ildren between the ages of 1 to 4 years old during the proterozoic 1920s oddly in the developed countries of the globe like the United States and Britain.As the general standards of upkeep improved in the industrialised nations of the world so too did the counterbalance in TB related incidences.TB is a lot classed by the infection of one of the ii variants of the tubercle bacillus which is known to commonly affect man. They are Mycobacerium tuberculosis and bovis6.In Nigeria, majority of the TB related disease is due largely to the M. tuberculosis variant of the tubercle bacillus. The TB infections caused by Mycobacterium bovis which is associated with take out are rare and few and far between7.TB can take an active and an still state of infection. The Word Health Organisation (WHO) describes an active elusion of TB as a symptomatic disease due to infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis8.TB cases are generally classified as each pulmonary or extra-pulmonary.Patients wit h pulmonary TB are further sub-divided into smear-positive and smear-negative cases9. Smear-positive cases are the most important sub-groups for control architectural plans as they are the source of infection.The WHO has be a smear-positive patient asA patient with at least(prenominal) two sputum warnings positive for acid-fast bacilli (AFB) by microscopyA patient with at least one sputum specimen positive for AFB and radiographic abnormalities consistent with active pulmonary TB.A patient with at least one sputum specimen positive for AFB, which is culture-positive for M. tuberculosis.A smear-negative patient on the other hand is also outlined by the WHO asA patient with at least two sputum specimens negative for AFB by microscopy, radiographic abnormalities consistent with active pulmonary tuberculosis and a decision by a physician to treat with a full curative course of anti-TB chemotherapyA patient with a least one sputum specimen negative for AFB, which is culture-positive for M. Tuberculosis and finallyExtra-pulmonary tuberculosis is defined by the WHO asA patient with a histological and (or) clinical evidence consistent with active extra-pulmonary TB and a decision by a physician to treat with full curative course of anti-TB chemotherapy101.10Mode of TransmissionThe transmittance of Tuberculosis is done mainly with droplet infection and droplet nuclei which is said to be generated when a patient with tuberculosis coughs11.For the infection to be transmitted the droplet particles must be fresh in its constituency to carry a viable organism. The spread and transmission of tuberculosis is heightened even further depending on the vigorous nature of the cough and the ventilation provisions in the environment concerned.1.11Signs SymptomsThe element of signs and symptoms in Tuberculosis is often misleading in the sense that the mankind body may harbour the bacterium that causes tuberculosis, and the immune system in the body suppresses the resultant ef fect and prevents the host from becoming sick. It is as a result of this scenario that the medical profession and doctors make a distinction between what is referred to as Latent TB and Active TBLatent TB is a condition where the patient has a TB infection further the bacteria () remains in the body in an inactive state and therefore causes no symptoms to be shown.Latent TB which is often referred to as inactive TB is not known to be infectious.Active TB on the other hand is the contagious wing of tuberculosis and can make its hosts sick.12The state of active TB develops some uncontaminating signs and symptoms in its diagnosis and they includeChills and cold spellsFatigueFeverLoss of AppetiteNight SweatsUnexplained weight loss13Medical evidence has shown that there are variable degrees of Tuberculosis depending on which part of the pitying body it affects. Tuberculosis often attacks the lungs and its signs and symptoms includeCoughing that laughs for three weeks or moreCoughing up seamChest pain or pain resulting from breathing or coughing14Tuberculosis is known to affect other parts of the body of which include the brain, spine or kidneys. The symptoms depend on the organs that are affected. Tuberculosis of the kidney tends to show signs symptoms of bleeding in the patients urine whilst Tuberculosis of the spine shows cases of back pain.1.12 pensiveness Periodssource http//www.aarogya.com/ indicator.php?option=com_content caper=viewid=834Itemid=8531.2Public Health ImportanceStandard of Living State of Health In NigeriaThe United Nations Human organic evolution (UNDP) programme has through the early 1990s paid greater emphasis in human development, welfare and p everyplacety research.Through its Human Development Report, it has published the Human Development Index (HDI) which looks beyond GDP to a broader definition of a nations well-being. The link in welfare is a determinant index to wellness conditions, well being of persons and an insight onto t heir susceptibility and immunity to disease infection15.The sparing condition of a nation is a guiding factor to exploitation, development and aliveness standards of a nations citizen. The assumption that a citizen who is paid more per capita has his or her standard of living higher(prenominal) than those who are paid less is not often the case.Levels of livelihood and poverty are not necessary elevated through higher income.Nigeria has seen a steady rise in its income per capita over the years.However, a sharp incline in its inflation rate to the economy, ugly standard of governance coupled with a dilapidated health care system has seen a decline in its overall standard of living.16The graph below shows this comparison when we see the income per capita of a nation like Madagascar over Nigeria whose citizens receive a higher pay package but charter poorer living standards which trigger health concerns17.The Human Development Index (HDI) provides a composite measure of three di mensions of human development. These reachs includeLiving a long and healthy life which is measured through life expectancyThe level and degree of education and literacy of nations citizens.This is measured by adult literacy and enrolment at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels and finally,Levels of a decent standard of living which is measured by an individuals level of acquire power parity (PPP) and income base analysis.18Critics of the mold build adhered to the fact that the index is not in any sense a comprehensive measure of human development and a way of monitoring standard of living.It does not, for example, include important indicators much(prenominal) as gender or income inequality or other indicators such(prenominal)(prenominal) as respect for human rights and political freedoms. However, what it does provide is a broadened prism for viewing human progress and the complex relationship between income and well-being.In Nigerias context, this index measures the bu colics standard of living and state of health by comparing certain rouge sectors such as life expectancy rate and adult literacy rates.The map below gives a unique view to Nigerias position. In this chart, Nigeria has been class-conscious 158th out of 177 amongst the developing nations of the world with an HDI rating of 0.470.19The evaluation of a standard of living is relative, depending upon the belief of the observer as to what constitutes a high or a low scale. Another relative index to the standard of living of a certain economical group can be gathered from a comparison of the cost of living and the wage scale or personal income. Factors such as discretional income are important, but standard of living includes not only the material articles of consumption but also the modus operandi of dependents in a family, the environment, the educational opportunities, and the amount spent for health, recreation, and cordial operate.Nigeria as a nation has a GDP range of 6.4 as a t 200820 and the number of dependants transfer within the existences in the northern sulfurern part of the country. A key example on health grounds are the lifestyles of community citizens in Kano, Kaduna, Zamfara, Sokoto and Bauchi States.The cultural and religious trends of having a male person occupant look after both siblings and relatives within a nuclear family as well as the extended family puts a large burden on cost of living, health standards and living quarters.The research conducted by International medical associations and bodies such as CDC, UNICEF, WHO, Rotary International through the Polio vaccination programme in Kano State are key resources showed a dilapidated and sub-standard level of livelihood amongst the locals in urban realms21. Unemployment, low wages, crowded living conditions, and physical calamities, such as drought, flood, political instability, malnutrition etc has brought a drop in the standard of living within such regions in Nigeria.While sta ndard of living may vary greatly among various groups within the country, it also varies from nation to nation, and international comparisons are somemagazines made by analyzing gross national products, per capita incomes, or any number of other indicators from life expectancy to clean water. Overall, industrialized nations tend to ask a higher standard of living than developing countries. Nigeria is no exception to this theory.Records retain shown that since the mid-1970s almost all regions have been progressively increasing their HDI score.A key region that has seen a tremendous rise in their standard of living since the early 1990s are East South Asia.Central and Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) especially Russia and its former Soviet colonies initially had a ruinous decline in the first half of the 1990s but have recovered and improved their standard of living.22The major exception is sub-Saharan Africa in areas such as Niger, Togo, Cameroon an d Nigeria. Records have shown that since 1990 standard of living has not improved but stagnated.Experts believe that this is partly due to economic reversal but principally because of the ruinous effect of human immunodeficiency virus/AIDS on life expectancy.23Poverty is the major consequence of the dilapidated and chronic misadventure in Nigerias healthcare and hearty service system.24 The access to standard resources such as good education, improved water supply, good nutritional standards and adequate shelter provisions has dedicateed Nigeria being ranked 80th amongst 108 developing countries with an HPI-1 value of 37.3 as evident in the chart below.25 These key trends in life expectancy, standard of living and health conditions explains why the 22 nations targeted and responsible for 80% of the worlds TB infections are found in impoverished and developing nations with a poor level of standard of living and health concerns.1.3Housing and Poor SanitationNigeria especially Lago s State has had the in-dignified commercial label of being the most expensive slum in the world. This gives a clear insight into the high magnitude of housing inadequacy in both urban rural centres in Nigeria. The dilapidated state of infrastructure and a poor maintenance culture has aggravated the spread of disease and risk in healthy living standards of the vulnerable masses especially in impoverished regions within the country. This can be proven and manifested in both quantitative and qualitative terms.In developed societies such as the United Kingdom (UK), the local political science are responsible for things like planning permission needed before erecting structures. Nigerias UDB (Urban Development Board) commissions do have rules and regulations in place for buildings, drainage facilities and proper infrastructural displacement but the problem is one of performance, corruption and share disregard for social, health and economic concerns.This has over the decades given rise to poor sanitary conditions which can be seen through the severe overcrowding and unsanitary environment specifyd by housing in the urban centres. The only resultant factor are the culminating effect and produce of slum areas. The deficiency in housing quality, building materials and the design and spacing of buildings is a key aspect of why the spread of diseases such as Meningitis, Cholera, Malaria and Tuberculosis are rearing in the region.Take for example the pairingern city of Kano State. A city known for its ancient history and strict adherence to Islamic principles, is also known for its vast close knit network of shanty mud houses that lie in close proximity to one another with provided no room for cross ventilation, proper drainage or sewage facility26. Sewage is surface borne with the refuse and excreta of humans and livestock being displayed in the open.The health hazards this poses are many. The question of housing and poor sanitation is nothing new to the African continent and is indeed a key feature in its rural regions which has spread into the urban developed areas of the countries within Africa.The United Nations in 1969 confirmed that the average annual growth rates were 4.7% and 4.6% between the period 1960 and 1980, and 1980 and 2000 respectively.A confirmation of this can be found in the table annexed below.27Average Annual Growth RatePopulation (Millions)1960-19801980-2000196019802000%%Africa31771904.74.6Studies have shown that the rapid rate of urbanisation in Nigeria and the consequential explosion of urban population have not been matched by a corresponding commensurate replace in social, economic and technological development28The economic down town in the early 1980s saw a break in the level of growth and development with the nations economy to that of its population boom29.The miss of proper adequate public infrastructure and social services has suffered tremendously and this has affected the process and level of urban pla nning and zoning in many cases.A practical example of this can be seen in the newly created Nigerian dandy the Federal Capital territory, Abuja.The capital was built by foreign contractors Julius Berger, with the idea and layout of a suburban aristocratic society with well spaced buildings proper social and infrastructural amenities and health concerns taking into consideration.But the key problem lay with accommodation and transportation of the work force and working class within the city.No provisions were made which forced locals to build shanty accommodations unaided by proper planning authorities with little or no regard for health safety issues, sanitary considerations or even building regulations.This idea coupled with the population growth had outpaced the rate of housing provision and created a dilemma in the housing standards and sanitary conditions of millions of its inhabitants.The spread of diseases both air water borne became eminent and this has been a key problem and contributory factor to disease control in Nigeria.1.4Housing and PovertyThe spread of disease can be said to be the resultant consequence of a number of socio-economic factors as well as the action and inaction of government over the years.Rural areas and indeed some urban regions in Nigerian States, generally lack vital social services and infrastructure services such as clean water, electricity, and good roads. The absence of these amenities constitutes push factors which can be said to have facilitated the migration of rural dwellers into urban centres.It is note a surprise that the rate of urbanisation in Nigeria far outpaces the rate of economic development.Despite the enormous amount of money proposed for urban investiture in the National Development Plan, very limited investment is made in urban infrastructure.An increasing shortage of urban services and infrastructure characterize the urban areas, and these are only accessible to a diminishing share of the population.T he existing urban services are overstrained which often times lead to center collapse.A large proportion of the population does not have reasonable access to safe and ample water supply, and neither do they have the content for hygienic waste disposal. It is eminent that these two services are essential for a healthy and productive life and the lack of it are a key contributory factor to the causes of Tuberculosis.The quality of the environment in most urban centres in Nigeria is deplorable.This is not so much dependent on the material characteristics of the buildings but on their organization as spatial units.The slow process of urban planning and zoning, in the face of rapid urbanisation in most urban centres, has resulted in poor layout of buildings with inadequate roads between them and inadequate drainage and provision for refuse evacuation.Thus there is a high incidence of pollution through water, solid waste, air and noise and inadequacy of open spaces for other land uses3 0.Studies over the years have shown the deplorable conditions of urban housing in Nigeria. They affirm that 75% of the dwelling units in Nigerias urban centres are substandard and the dwellings are sited in slums31.This is attributed to the combined effects of natural ageing of the buildings, lack of maintenance and neglect, wrong use of the buildings, poor sanitation in the disposal of sewage and solid waste, wrong development of land, and increasing deterioration of the natural landscape.thither are moderate building facilities in Nigeria but the high level of poverty of most urban households places the available housing stock out of their economic reach.Many of the households resort to constructing make shift dwellings with all sorts of refuse materials in illegally occupied land.This has led to the growth of squatter settlements in many urban centres.The buildings therein are badly maintained and lack sanitary facilities with little access to light, air and good water.32The Unit ed Nations Standard for Nigerias room moving in is 2.20. The World Health Organization (WHO) stipulates the average rating to be between 1.8 and 3.1, whilst the Nigerian Government prescribed a standard of 2.0 per room.33However, the reality is different as overcrowding is thus a visible feature of urban housing in Nigeria.It is symptomatic of housing poverty and consequential of poor economic circumstances.1.5Prevalence of TBThe term prevalence of Tuberculosis usually refers to the estimated population of people who are managing Tuberculosis at any given time.Prevalence and mortality are considered by the WHO as direct indicators of the burden of Tuberculosis which indicate the number of people suffering from the disease at a given point in time and subsequently those dying each year.34A balance and understanding of these terms aids the improvement of the level of control and effectiveness in treatment thereby reducing the average duration of the disease.The Stop TB Partnership link spearheaded by the WHO is aimed at reducing by 2015, the per capita prevalence and mortality rates by 50% in comparison to records in 1990.35 The optimism is reassuring in most regions of the world with the exception of the African continent. The key factors derailing the efforts will be highlighted in the nigh chapter.In order to determine prevalence levels within a region, resort to statistic by way of a population based survey is often adopted. These surveys are used to estimate prevalence for those countries with proper census records. Another option is to adopt the method of estimated incidence ratings.Estimates of this nature on TB incidences, prevalence and mortality rates are based on a consultative and analytical process proscribed by the WHO and published on an annual basis.Records vary from country to country, however the general formulae used is derived from the following key factorsEstimates of incidence combined with assumptions about the duration of the disease. The duration of the disease is assumed to vary in consistency with whether or not the disease is smear-positive and whether or not the individual receives treatment in a DOTS programme or in a non DOTS programme or is not treated all and finallyWhether or not the individual is infected with HIV36According to the WHO, nearly two billion people about ternary of the worlds population, are infected with TB.37In developed regions of the world such as the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States of America (USA), the prevalence levels are much lower than those recorded in high risk regions of the developing world.Statistic records rendered in 2003 from the Department of Health within the UK suggests the following42 years was the implicate age of patients hospitalised with Tuberculosis in England between 2002-200369% of hospitalisations for Tuberculosis was for 15-59 year olds in England between 2002-200310% of hospitalisations for Tuberculosis was for over 75 year olds in England betw een 2002-2003.38The goal for Tuberculosis elimination in the United States of America (USA) is a TB disease incidence of less than 1 per million US population by 2010. This requires that the Latent TB Infection (LTBI) prevalence level should be less than 1% and decreasing by 2010.Current prevalence rate levels of Tuberculosis in the United States are between 10 and 15 million people. In 1998, a total of 18,371 active TB cases were recorded in all 50 states and the District of Columbia39A comparison level of statistical studies in the prevalence levels of patients between 1999-2000 was correspondd to those of patients way back in 1971-1972 and the results were as followsLTBI prevalence was 4.2% with an estimated 11,213,000 individuals diagnosed with LTBIAmongst 25 74 year olds, prevalence decreased from 14.3% in 1971-1972 to 5.7% in 1999-2000Higher prevalences were seen in the foreign borns which business relationship for 18.7%, non Hispanic blacks and African Americans accounted for 7.0%, Mexican Americans accounted for 9.4% and individuals living in poverty accounted for 6.1%A total of 63% of LTBI was among the foreign bornA total of 25.5% of persons with LTBI had previously been diagnosed as having LTBI or TB andOnly 13.2% had been prescribed treatment40The chart below as well as that in the annex, shows the level of new TB cases per 100,000 population and that of prevalence levels in HIV+ people worldwide for the year 2007.411.6How Rapid Does TB Spread In Nigeria?Part of the Federal Governments programme in keep back the spread has been initiated through the National TB and Leprosy Control Programme (NTBLCP) which is quest to achieve a 70% TB detection rate and an 85% bring around rate by the end of 2010The programme also aims to ensure that TB patients receive adequate drugs and comply with the slated 8 months period of treatment.Mr Omoniyi Fadare an NTBLCP Programme Officer is quoted to have said in 2005 that the DOTS programme was being implement in 584 out of 774 local government areas with the country recording between 700,000 to 1 million TB cases annually out of which 105,000 are TB related deaths.42Ideally, the spread of TB should be less bearing in mind that the Nigerian Government has implemented the DOTS strategy in all antiretroviral treatment centres nationwide in an effort to control the spread of Tuberculosis..However, this is not the case as in 2009 the rate of prevalence had risen to over 1.2 million with an annual mortality rate of 150,000. These statistics question the reasons behind the spread of TB in Nigeria.The spread of TB is made rampant through factors such as poverty and outdated testing equipment which contribute to Nigerias high TB prevalence. The lack of awareness, early detection and failure to render immediate treatment are also key factors to the spread of TB in Nigeria as corroborated by Dan Onwujekwe a Senior Fellow of the Lagos based Nigerian Institute of Medical Research.43A recent study car ried out by the Nigerian Institute of Medical Research (NIMR) in 2007 found out that of the 620 HIV/AIDS patients surveyed in June and July, 2006, about 160 had TB without knowing they did have the disease.44Other factors which contribute to the growing spread of the disease includeThe lack of fitted drugs and clinics within close proximity of affected regions has heightens the spread of the disease as infected persons and those willing to undergo medical check ups are discouraged from seeking help.Poor laboratory infrastructure needed for testing as well as insufficient man power also plague the success and break the effective implementation of the TB control activities. Also worthy of note is limited funding for TB control efforts from the Federal and Sate government authorities.The failure on the part of the authorities stalls the programmes ability to execute necessary activities when due.The issue of funding is a paradoxical point as it points also to issues of embezzlement and corruption that has plagued the country over several decades of mismanagement. The DOTS programme and TB drugs are relatively cheap and free to the public and yet with adequate funding from nongovernmental organizations and governments like the EU and the United States as indicated in the diagram below45, the problem of funding still remains a key factor that continues to furnish the spread of the disease.1.7AimThe aim of this study (dissertation) isTo provide an insight into the terminal disease of Tuberculosis on an International and national levelTo evaluate DOTS implementation in Nigeria using a series of case detection and treatment outcomes as indicatorsTo dismember and evaluate the resulting consequences of the DOTS programme in Nigeria within the 21st snow and see if its adoption has favoured a positive control of TB over the years1.8ObejetiveThe following are the objectives of this study (dissertation)To evaluate case detection rates of smear-positive TB cases in sel ected areas implementing the DOTS programme within NigeriaTo evaluate case detection rates of all TB cases notified in Nigeria within the 21st centuryTo compare Nigerian experiences, failures and progresses to other developing nations and developed countries of the world affected by TBTo identify potential weaknesses, strengths and developments in the DOTS programme in NigeriaTo create, deliver and analyse a survey on the Nigerian public on the implementation of DOTS in Nigeria within selective states and compare the resulting outcomes with available data1.9Research headResearch questions will be focussed on whether or not the DOTS programme has achieved its object and mandate of reducing the rate of TB infection in Nigeria.Whether or not the target of 2015 by the WHO is a realistic target that can be met by Nigeria?Whether or not Nigeria has made progress over the years with the amount of funding hey have had and the exposure the healthcare system has had to curb the growing threa t of TB in the countryWhether factors such as cultural, religious, economic and social elements are the cause of the drawback in the successful implementation of the DOTS programme in Nigeria?Chapter Two2.0The Federal Republic of NigeriaNigeria is located in westward Africa on the Gulf of Guinea and occupies a total area of 923,768 km making it the 32nd largest country in the world.46 It is comparable in size to the South American country of Venezuela and is about twice the size of the State of California in the United States of America.47 It is bordered by Benin in the West, Niger in the North, Chad in the North West, Cameroon in the East and has a coastline of at least 853km with the Atlantic ocean.48The countrys climatic regions are broken down into three categories the far south which is defined by tropical rainforest climate with annual rainfall of between 60 to 80 inches per annum, the far north where majority of the TB epidemics and polio incidences have been recorded is de fined by its almost desert-like climate where rain fall records are set at less than 20 inches per annum and finally the rest of the countrys region between the far south and far north is characteristic of the savanah grove land with annual rainfalls of between 20 to 60 inches.49The country has over 250 ethnical group divisions.50 The main tribes are the Hausas in the Nothern part of the country where majoriy of the TB pandemic is recorded, the Yorubas in the Southern part of the country known for is thick mangrove swambs and malaria manifestation and the Igbos in the Eastern part of the country where majority of the nations oil explorations and severe environmental degredation oil spilllages are found.51In a country ranked as the 8th most populous country in the world, the United Nations (UN) estimated Nigerias population at 131,530,000 in 2004.52 The modish censors in Nigeria in 2006 put the countrys population at 150 million that is almost 3 times the population of the United K ingdom in an area mass of about less than half the size of Nigeria. It is estimated that by 2050, Nigeria will be one of those countries in the world like China, India and Brazil, that account for majority of the worlds population.53 It is indeed a statistical nightmare when one considers that most of the worlds current populous nations are amongs the 22 nations in the DOTS programme.Nigeria as a confederation of states is divided into thirty vi (36) states and one Federal Capital Territory (Abuja) which are further divided into 774 LGAs.54This gives you an idea of the logistical difficulties and task ahead of the DOTS programme in curbing a disease that is catalysed by such vices as poor sanitary conditions and tightly spaced housing plans.Nigeria has six major cities with a population of over 1 million people. They are the cities of Lagos, Kano, Ibadan, Kaduna, Port Harcourt and Benin City.55The city of Lagos alone accounts for 8 million people56 a region of about the size of Car diff. This demography and health hazards surrounding a region in comparision to the capital of Wales which accounts for only 2.9 milion citizens.A map of the region showing its states and geographical lo

Multipath Fading Channels And Transmitted Signals Computer Science Essay

Multipath Fading Channels And Transmitted Signals Computer Science EssayMultipath melt is a phenomenon of attenuation of genetic houses impu display board to refraction, reflection and diffraction from objects or obstacles present in the tune or way of transmission. In this article, we have be unfeignedized an example of multipath melt dribbles such as in circumstance of Rayleigh fade carry using MATLAB and would be analysing the variations incurred after vary system parameters such as savours per jiffy and Doppler alternate of the respective stuffs of the Rayleigh fading system. Also, hither screen shots of the respective variations have been provided for clear understanding of induced variations.1. IntroductionAs mentioned earlier as well, multipath fading is the occurrence of fading of transmitted signals by refraction, reflection and diffraction due to obstacles present in the line or path of transmission and channels affected due to this type of fading be cal led multipath fading channels. Rayleigh fading is nothing but the statistical model that communication engineers use to study the characteristics propagation of radio signals, in sheath of wireless propagation channels. In general, Rayleigh fading model is used for studying ionospheric and tropospheric signals propagation and such that the signals are transmitted in a far-flung manner i.e. they are transmitted in form of concentric rings throughout the atmosphere. Thus, these are not used to study the fading that occurs in line of sight propagation (for that Rician is preferred over it).The Rayleigh fading channel place be used to study fading characteristics such as in cases of dumbly populated cities with a large number of skyscrapers (such as Central London and NYC). The central limit theorem limits this concept such that the amount of scatter seat be considered as a function of irrespective of individual function of Gaussian distribution. The impulse response freighter be m odelled a random function varying from 0 to 2pie 1. The probability distribution function R(of Rayleigh fading) can be given asWhere, =E(R2). 1As mentioned in abstract that we would be varying the Doppler shift in case of Rayleigh fading and will be explaining the observed variations in the gene treadd produce, its violate to have an understanding of what Doppler shift actually means as well for better understanding of concepts. Doppler effect (or Doppler shift) can be described as the summation or decrease in Doppler frequency in case of a pitiful object (for e.g. the Doppler frequency increases when the object is moving towards the unmoving or moving object and vice versa for moving away from the desired moving or stationary object). The mathematical convention for Doppler frequency can be given asf = left( fracv + v_rv + v_s right) f_0 ,Where Vr is the velocity of receiver relative to the moderate and Vs is the velocity of source relative to the medium and V is the velocit y of waves in the medium 2.Also, Doppler fountain ghostly density which is also an important parameter of Rayleigh fading is the measure of spectral broadening caused in the waveform characteristics of the transmitted signal (such that the sealed signals appears to be faded and broadened as compared to the actual signal sent). The mathematical expression for Doppler power spectral density can be shown as 3S(nu) = frac1pi f_d sqrt1 left(fracnuf_dright)2Realization of Rayleigh fading using MATLABA standard program of Rayleigh fading can be accessed in MATLAB 2010a by typing the command doc_qpsk_rayleigh_derotated in the command window. The MATLAB operator gives us a block plot of the Rayleigh fading. It consists of a Bernoulli binary sequence generator, deuce QPSKs, one computer error rate calculator, one Rayleigh fading block (where adjustments regarding Doppler shift can be do), one arrange removal of path watch block and in the end an AWGN block for simulation of faded s ignal (4). The screenshot of block draw for Rayleigh fading had been shown below normal 1. MATLAB screenshot of the block diagram for simulating the Rayleigh fading2.1 Simulation with basic prizes of Doppler shift and sample rateThe simulation results into three possible produces. These are transmitter output, Rayleigh channel output with no phase component and Rayleigh noisy channel output with no phase component. These outputs for sample simulation with arcsecond sample rate/ irregular of 100logbase2 (M) and maximum Doppler shift of 1000 hertz is shown below. The screenshots of respective output of QPSK modulator output, Rayleigh channel output and noisy Rayleigh channel output has been shown belowFigure 2.screenshot of MATLAB simulated QPSK modulator output for Rayleigh fadingFigure 3.screenshot of Rayleigh channel output for Rayleigh fading (simulated using MATLAB)Figure 4.screenshot of the noisy Rayleigh channel output for Rayleigh fading (simulated using MATLAB)2.2. Simula tion with changed value of Doppler shift and sample rateIn the second simulation i have changed the values in Doppler shift and sample rate per second. The Doppler shift can be changed by changing masking parameters in the Rayleigh fading channel. Here, in this simulation I have kept the Doppler shift to 10000Hz while in previous case it was 1000Hz. Also, in Bernoulli bit sequence generator the value of samples per second had been changed to 1000logbase2 (M). The observed variations have been shown below.Figure 5. QPSK modulator output of the Rayleigh fading (simulated using MATLAB)Figure 6. Rayleigh channel output for the Rayleigh fading (simulated using MATLAB).Figure 7. Noisy Rayleigh channel output for Rayleigh fading (simulation using MATLAB)2.3. Explanation of the observed variationsIt can be seen that in starting signal case the outputs (amplitude) of QPSK modulator lies in the range of -1 to 0 and 0 to +1 while it varies from -2 to 0 and 0 to +2 which obviously should be ob servable as the samples per second gets change magnitude from 1000 to 10000 samples per second. However, as the Doppler shift is increased the fading pay offs more visible in case of the Rayleigh fading and noisy Rayleigh fading channels. The explanation can be given using Jakes model which relates the Doppler shift and Rayleigh fading. Jakes model relates the Rayleigh fading for kth wave to Doppler shift in following mannerR(t,k) = 2sqrt2leftsum_n=1Mleft(cosbeta_n + jsinbeta_nright)cosleft(2 pi f_n t + theta_n,kright) + frac1sqrt2left(cosalpha + jsinalpharight)cos2 pi f_d trightAlso, fn=fd(cosa) 5Hence, it can be utter that the amount of Rayleigh fading is directly proportional to the cosine of Doppler shift experienced by the transmitted wave. Also, worth mentioning over here is that is cosine decreases from 0 to change magnitude values of angle. It can be also seen that from expression mentioned above for power spectral density for Doppler shift that if the Doppler shift is i ncreased the corresponding power spectral density is also increased. Thus, the results shown in the screenshots are explained and justified and it can be said that with the increase of Doppler shift the transmitted waves the Rayleigh fading is increased and so is the power spectral density related to it.ConclusionRayleigh fading is an important phenomenon used to explain multipath fading in case of the dense populated areas. Rayleigh fading affects a transmitted signal by making broadened and faded in nature and it also does effects its power spectral density in a king-sized way. Also, with increase in Doppler shift the Rayleigh is increased as well. In this frame-up, channel distortion parameters such as gain and phase are defined as a complex number consisting of real and imaginary parts. Thus, Rayleigh fading can be said to be composed of ii paths (real and imaginary) and can be considered as independent paths which can be added in order to get net magnitude of Rayleigh fading occurred in the transmission 6.To counter the effects of Rayleigh fading a number of techniques were used in the past but the most common one used these days is using a White Gaussian simulator for maintaining bearable effects of Rayleigh fading. This had been shown in the block diagram shown above.ReferencesProakis John. G (1995).Digital Communications(3rd Ed.). Singapore McGraw-Hill Book Co. pp.767-768.ISBN0-07-113814-5Rosen, Joe Gothard, Quinn Lisa (2009). Encyclopedia of Physical Science. Infobase Publishing. p. one hundred fifty-five. ISBN 0-816-07011-3., available on page 155Clarke.H.R. (July-August 1968). A Statistical Theory of Mobile Radio Reception. Bell Systems Technical Journal, page number 957-1000Arsal. A, Ozen. S(2008), A Rayleigh fading lter design for multipath Rayleigh fading simulation and comparisons to former(a) simulatorsJakes. C. Williams, Editor (February 1, 1975). Microwave Mobile Communications. New York John Wiley Sons Inc. ISBN 0-471-43720-4.Proakis Joh n. G (1995).Digital Communications(3rd Ed.). Singapore McGraw-Hill Book Co. pp.767-768.ISBN0-07-113814-5Spread Spectrum ModelsAbstractSpread spectrum is a statistical chanting technique that is been used for increasing the available channel bandwidth. In this article we have focussed on the one the circularise spectrum models i.e. both users real spreading with BPSK conversion using MATLAB. Also, a brief study of variations and the explanation of such observations are make in this article. Here, Ill be varying the SNR value of the AWGN block in the given block diagram for the spread spectrum model and would be observing and explaining the variations occurred.1. IntroductionSpread spectrum modulation is a type of modulation in which we intentionally increase the available bandwidth in frequency domain i.e. we stretch the available bandwidth. This leads to a broadened or widened signal for with increased bandwidth. This is generally do to increase bandwidth for signals that requi re more bandwidth for transmission (it has an effect similar to aliasing but the difference we take anti-aliasing measures against the later). The system models that use such spread spectrum techniques are called spread spectrum models.Two user model for real spreading with BPSK modulation basically utilizes two contrasting orthogonal codes for spreading of the codes. The process of spreading is independent in nature i.e. a different pn sequence for separately of the two users. This model uses the orthogonal frequency division multiplexing access technology (OFDM) for communication between the two users simultaneously. In this scheme, there are a large number of orthogonal sub carriers separated by a very small distance. The information is wherefore divided into small but analogous sized chunks and whence are loaded (modulated) on these orthogonal sub carriers through multiple paths 1. The subcarriers then can use any of the conventional technologies for modulating these data packets (such as QAM or PSK) for transmission over the channel. Also, the symbol rates for individual data packets are maintained such that those comparable to its conventional counterparts. However, OFDM is more popular with wireless systems.2.1. Realization of spread spectrum model using MATLABTwo user orthogonal real fading with BPSK can be realized in MATALAB by typing commspreading_orthobpsk2u in the MATLAB command video. The result shown on the MATLAB simulation window is a block diagram of two user real spreading with BPSK. The screenshot of this has been shown belowFigure 1- Two-user orthogonal real spreading with BPSK modulation (simulated in MATLAB)As shown in the block diagram here the system setup can be broadly classified into three sections. These are transmitter section, the channel and then receiver section. Receiver section is hike up extended into one more section known as error calculation section. Let us have a brief look into each of the sections mentioned abov e.2.1.1 Transmitter sectionThe transmitter section is responsible for transmitting signals to receiver section via channel section of the system setup. Transmitter section is basically made up 5 major components, these are Random integer (signal generator), real BPSK modulator, Hadamard code generator, normalized gain and spreader blocks. Random integer block is used for the epochs of signals that could be used for sending over the channel. These signals are then BPSK modulated where it is also mixed with the actual user signals and sent to spreader section. The sequence generated is of 64 bits length.Then on the lower side of the transmitter contains Hadamard code generator which generates unique Hadamard codes for the signals encryption and security to protect it from hacking and intervention addition over the channel. The gain of the Hadamard code is then normalized and mixed with the BPSK modulated signal in the spreader section. The spreader is responsible for the deliberate spreading of signals in the frequency domain to increase the bandwidth of transmitted signal.2.1.2. Channel sectionChannel section here refers to actual channel or medium through which transmission is done. But here its not wireless as it is an experimental setup. This section here contains AWGN correction blocks. These are responsible for deciding SNR values for the transmitted signals as to gain knowledge about(predicate) the actual signal transmission through wireless medium. Here, a person can set values of SNR such that to determine the low and high noise environment and the results of these variations of the error rate at receiver section.2.1.3. Receiver sectionThe receiver section is responsible for the reception, decryption, de-spreading and calculation of error rate in the received signals after travelling through the physical medium. The process carried out here is just opposite as of transmitter section of the setup. The received signal is first sent to de-spreader for removing the spreading done in transmitter section. The integrator and dump section is used to detect or separate out RZ and NRZ parts of bit sequence 3. Then the sequence is sent to demodulating BPSK section and then to error rate determination section for error rate estimation.2.2. Effects of Variations in SNR on the Error rateThe effects of variations of SNR on the error rate have been summarized below. The table below shows the variations in values of SNR and the corresponding changes in error rate i.e. eRx/Rx (number of monstrous bits transferred /total bits received 2) with de-spreading. Also, worth mentioning here is that the time period for which the simulation is carried by the system is set to 0.125 seconds in this sample spread spectrum modulation. The table is as underFigure 2. Table above depicts the effect of variation of SNR on the error rate of the system setup explained above (all values are realized in MATLAB and written bug out in the table)The table above shows that with increasing values of signal to noise ratio the value of bit error rate is reduced. But it is different in first two readings for receiver1 and receiver2 while it ends out to be zero for SNR value 100 dB for all of the values simulated in a time defined range of 0.125 seconds. This pretty understandable that the dispreading used is here is of ideal nature thus the value of erroneous bits goes down as value of SNR increases. The difference in the error rates between the first two readings of receiver1 and receiver2 is pretty understandable as the two different signals have different error rates when they are transmitted through two different Hadamard codes (i.e. initial seed for first receiver was set to 37 and for second it was set 631).3. ConclusionTwo user orthogonal real fading with BPSK modulation is used as an experimental to study the characteristics of spread spectrum. The OFDMA as we know splits the large data into small equally sized fragments and transmits it thr ough multiple paths thus is also affected by multipath fading. This particularly affects wireless channels even makes is even more difficult to maintain SNR and low error rates. To counter the effects AWGN simulator is used such that the effects of multipath fading are neutralized.The observations made with this system setup prove that value of SNR affects the error rate percentage in the transmission. As the value of SNR is increased the value of error rate goes down and vice versa for a lower value of SNR.References1. Robertson. P Kaiser .S The effects of Doppler spreads in OFDM(A) mobile radio systems, Vehicular Technology Conference, 1999. VTC 1999 Fall. IEEE VTS2. Shah .Gaurav Molina. Andres Blaze. Matt (2006) Keyboards and Covert Channels3. Sadr, R. Hurd, W. J. The Telecommunications and data AcquisitionReport, page 158-173 (ISBN N88-12679 04-32)4. Aurthur. Ross (1997) CA Patent 2228131 data available on http//www.mathworks.com/products/commblockset/demos.html?file=/produc ts/demos/ transferral/commblks/commspreading_m.html15. MATLAB code available at http//www.mathworks.com/products/commblockset/demos.html?file=/products/demos/shipping/commblks/commspreading_m.html1IEEE 802.11 Wlocal area networkAbstractIEEE 802.11 is the stepized adopted by IEEE for design of wireless network systems. Here, in this article a sample simulation of 802.11 standard is done using MATLAB and Simulink. Also, a brief description of operation and functional characteristics of blocks (i.e. components) used for attaining and maintaining wireless networks have been made. Also, certain parameters of WLAN system setup are varied to make a brief study of changes that incur in the system due to these variations.1. IntroductionSecure, dependable and fast wireless systems have become a need of current growing world that touches all(prenominal)one ranging from individuals to large organizations. Wireless networks are needed for small private area networks such as Bluetooth and Ad H oc and large networks for wider network coverage such as 3G and 4G networks are currently being employed for providing internet and communication services to people with mobility.The WLAN 802.11 standard is used for wireless communication networks in 2.4, 3.6 and 5 GHz frequency bands 1. There is a complete family of 802.11 which uses a number of over the air modulation techniques for transmission and reception of signals. There a number of versions launched by IEEE under the name of 802.11, this includes 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g and 802.11n. The most frequently employed among these are 802.11b and 802.11g. The data to be transmitted is first broken in small and equally sized packets and then modulated and transmitted on multiple channels (through different paths) to the destination. Thus, it uses OFDMA access for background signal up communication.802.11 standard has a complete frame stack for secure and dependable communication. These include certain frames for controlling and m aintaining the wireless link among wirelessly connected hosts. These are Protocol version, Type, Sub type, ToDS and FromDS, More fragment, Retry, Power management, More data and WEP 2. All these play important part in setting, maintaining, controlling and releasing the wireless connection among a number of wirelessly connected hosts on 802.11 system. Below is shown a sample example of how 802.11 WLAN standard system looks like.Figure 1. The Linksys WRT54G contains an 802.11b/g radio with two antennas 3.2.1. Realization of IEEE 802.11 WLAN standard in MATLABA sample MATLAB program for IEEE 802.11 WLAN can be realized in MATLAB by typing the same in help command box of the MATLAB. The output shows an experimental setup containing block diagram of the IEEE 802.11 WLAN system. This has been shown below.Figure 2- The screenshot above shows the block diagram of the sample IEEE 802.11 WLAN standard simulated in MATLABThe block diagram broadly contains variable star-rate data source, BPSK modulator and demodulator, OFDM symbol generation block and disassemble OFDM frame block, multipath channel and a packet error calculation block. Also, the signal visualization block for opening the signal characteristics of such setup. These signals characteristics are shown below.Figure 3-The signals transmission and receiver characteristics of the 802.11 system setup using sample settings (simulated in MATLAB)2.2. Operations and working of the Block diagramThe signal characteristics can be visualized in the above screenshot. The transmitted data consists of a binary stream of data send with OFDMA modulation. In this model shown above the variable rate data source is used to generate a binary string of variable data rates which could be considered as similar to the real life scenario as data rates vary with time and need of the users. This binary string is then BPSK modulated using BPSK modulator which is the case with OFDMA as it uses any other general modulation technique for th e modulation of signals and then OFDMA codes are added to it. The signals are now undergo a number of alterations before reaching the multipath channels. These include adding a cyclic code to the signals and going through IFFT which is opposite fast Fourier transform to the signal. The signals are then sent through multiple paths which is the case with the OFDMA. This completes transmitter section.After all these processes the signal enters the receiver section of the WLAN. The signals go through cyclic code removal block and then FFT or fast Fourier transform block to anti the effects of IFFT. Then signals are equalised in frequency domain as these get disturbed in frequency domain as shown in the figure 2 signal equalization. The disassemble OFDM block takes off the OFDM codes from the signals and then the signals is demodulated using a BPSK demodulator after which the signal output is sent to the error collection block where the original and received signals are compared to get error rate in the transmission. Also, one more output wire goes to adaptive modulation control block where the degree of modulation is controlled correspond to the bit error rate achieved by the system. Also, the value of SNR is varied according to the values entered in the stack. This also changes the adaptive modulation control.2.3. Effects of variations in certain parameters of IEEE 802.11 WLAN setupThe effects of inducing variations in certain parameters such as SNR or hysteresis are visible in the transmission characteristics of the block diagram shown below.These values are achieved after changing the value of hysteresis value for adaptive modulation to 10dB from 3dB and lower SNR threshold values to 10 11 14 18 22 24 26 32 decibels from earlier value of 10 11 14 18 24 26 decibels. It can be seen from the two figures 3 and 4 that the unequalized signal spreads out more. Also, the per i.e. packet error rate is increased from 6% to 12%. This due to increased hysteresis for adap tive modulation control.ConclusionThe IEEE 802.11 standard for wireless LAN is used as a standard for setting up the wireless network for communication of multiple numbers of hosts. Also, in this sample simulation we conclude that with varying values of SNR and hysteresis the BER and PER also changes.Thus, it can be also concluded that data rates and packet loss rates are also variable at variable places in the parts of networks. This due to different distances, landscapes and congestion is different for different areas as the signal transmission follows multiple paths for transmission and every single path has a different type of obstacles available. Also, the system is greatly affected by noise present in free space. The reception smell always decreases with increase in distance between the service provider and host.

Facial Recognition Technology for Identification

seventh cranial nerve Recognition Technology for IdentificationAbstractFacial actualisation is a crucial situationor of e actu each(prenominal)yday identification processes homosexual beings recognize and evaluate each other by means of the face. Whenever driving licences, item-by-itemity and membership card game argon checked or wherever access is escortled by security staff, the identity is verified by looking into nighbodys face. Thus, unlike other biometric features, e.g. the leafprint or fleur-de-lis science, facial cognition is a transp bent procedure well-known to human beings. However, especi all toldy in the context of the international oppose against terrorism it has be numerate obvious that the traditional modality of identifying individuals is insufficient. in that respect be certain limits to the natural recognition process carried out by human beings The recognition performance is not still impaired by difficulties with the recognition of people from o ther ethnic origin or deceptions due to a distinguishable hair-do or beards, but excessively by subjective impression found on a persons outward.The requirement of successful personal identification in access control and in other cases leads to using the results of biostatistics. Biometrics casing recognition is a passive, non-invasive method for verifying the identity of a person, Offers the benefits of its whimsical(p) facial technology in the form of customized overall solutions for the areas of access control, border control, ID-Man get alongment, search for criminals and video surveillanceFace recognition has come to be an active research area with numerous applications in recent years. In this thesis, a variety of approaches for face recognition are reviewed first-class honours degree. These approaches are classified according to basic tasks i-e Face Detect, face Normalization, and Face recognition. Then, an implementation of the face recognition method, the Eigenfac e recognition approach is presented in detail as well as other face recognitions methods i-e Local Feature Analysis, anxious Netwhole kit and boodle and Automatic face processing are discussed in general.IntroductionEver since the birth of first mankind, human beings have continually been seeking for personal possessions. From the very basics of food and clothes, to cars, ho riding habits, and the more recent substantial property of entropy and information, it is becoming increasingly important that such valu able-bodied as formats be sheltered by means of security control.Throughout history, the pillowcases of technologies utilise on the access control remainss are countless. From the traditional frames such as security guards checking personal IDs to the very rudiments of keypads and locks and pass sound out or entry encrypt, the focus now has moved to the more advance technologies, particularly in todays multifaceted society. Organisations are continuously seeking for a more secure, suitable and economical way of property protection.The problem associated with traditional mechanisms is that the possessions could be lost, stolen, forgotten, or misplaced. Furthermore, once in control of the identifying possession, any other unlicenced person could abuse the privileges of the authorised user. Therefore there is a need of some other approach to properly differentiate the correct (right) person from an impostor by positive identification of the person seeking access. Biometrics is hotshot rising development in the field of access control governing body that provides true identification. Although the word biometrics sound very rising and high tech, it is in fact the oldest form of identification known to man. Since the dawn of man, a persons face and enunciate was employ to identify him/her. Before the digital age, a hand written signature was the only method employ by a person to assert a unique form of identification that was difficult to copy. Popular biometric arrangings in use today include reproduce recognition, iris recognition, voice recognition, and facial recognition strategys. These brasss are in practice in different organizations like banks, airports, social ser immoralitys offices, blood banks and other highly sensitive organizations. Biometric frame tours the near accurate documentation solution and convenience. Biometrics administrations brush aside be integrated into any application that requires security, access control, and identification or check-out procedure of people. With biometric security, we can dispense with the key, the password, the PIN code the access-enabler is human beings not something he/she know, or something in his/her possession.Chapter 02This part of the dissertation provides the general overview of biometrics. Definitions such as Automatic, Physiological and behavioral characteristics are also discussed as well as different types of biometric systems i.e. one-to-one and one-to- numerous another(prenominal). world(a) Biometrics Base systems model, how it works and Multimodal Biometrics systems are also discussed in detail.In the last separate of this chapter, a comprehensive overview of the right approach in selection of different technologies for an origination in call of business objective, user toleration, FFR, FAR, organisational environments, cost and a par of all biometrics are also presented.Chapter 03Different types of biometric technologies are described in this chapter i.e. finger prints, iris and retina, voice, biometric signature and how these technologies work and the main features of these technologies with the serve well of diagrams.Chapter 04This chapter is one of the intimately important chapters which explain the general back ground of face recognition technology and how face recognition works. It gives a brief discussion of how stay and identification is achieved with the help of face recognition system.Actual techniques involved during face verification and identification i.e. faces detection, face normalisation and face recognition are also discussed in detail. Steps involved during the face detection i.e. coarse detection phase and refined search phase are discussed as well as how Normalisation is achieved through different steps i.e. lighting normalisation, scaling normalisation, rotation normalisation and background subtraction.Face recognition and methods of face recognition i.e. Eigenfaces, feature analysis, neuronal network and automatic face processing are discussed in this presentation.Chapter 05In this chapter of my dissertation, a proposed model of face recognition system for attendance of university students is discussed. The specification of the system is also compiled after the extensive study of face recognition products of different Vendors.Chapter 06This final chapter of my dissertation contains the conclusion, future work and issues involved with face recognition system.A review of the biometrics technologyBiometrics An overviewIn todays networked and digital world the role of system security has a vital importance. In originations a pear-shaped number of professional people are involved in one form of electronic transaction or another. Securing a companys digital assets and identities is a emergency for financial success. Ignoring IT security increases the risk of losses for any company moving through this electronic world.Logging on to a system by introduction user ID and password is very simple but its simplicity makes serious security problems. There are, withal, people who use easy guess passwords or commit written passwords near to their computer. In this situation there is no way to confirm that the person is logged on the system using his/her ID and password or some one else, nothing can prevent someone else from accessing sensitive material. Its like a passport system that doesnt require a photograph. In addition, time eat tasks behind the ma nagement of user ID and passwords divert already insufficient resources from other important responsibilities.Establishing an accurate identity is the main focus of the information systems security in recent years and great efforts are make in this field. Two types of identification systems are in use now today.In one type identification system flawed identity checking results in unnecessary duplication, fraud and client disruption, resulting costs and risks.While in other type of identification system an accurate identification procedure and effectiveness may be undermined by unpopularity resulting falsification and evasion.Chapter2Three conventional forms of identification are in use.Origination ID or smart cards.The use of passwords or Personal Identification Numbers, mother name, place of birth, home address etc.The third form of identification is to identify something unique about a person, such as reproduces, voice recognition, hand geometry, face structure, iris and retina. This third form of identification is known as Biometrics.Biometrics is a branch of science in which we study, what makes us biologically unique. It is also referred to the science and application of statistical analysis of biological characteristics (Physiological/ Behavioural). In security terms, Biometrics refers to technologies that discerp human characteristics for security designs. Therefore Biometrics technologies are concerned with the physical parts of the human or personal trait of human being.There are different definitions of security imbruted biometrics that have been circulating for a numbers of years.According to Ashbourn, an expert in Biometrics, Biometrics is a measurable physiologic and / or behavioural trait that can be captured and subsequently compared with another instance at the time of verification). 1The Biometrics Consortium states Biometrics is automated methods of recognizing a person topicd on a physiological or behavioural characteristic. 2The inte rnational Biometrics Group defines biometrics as the automated use of physiological or behavioural characteristics to determine or verify identity 3Physiological characteristics are fingerprint, Hand geometry, iris form , retinene, ear shape and facial scans etcBehavioural characteristics are voice pattern, key strokes, signature etc.As mentioned, biometric technologies are anxious with the physical parts of the human or personal mannerism of human beings. The word automatics basically means that biometrics technology must recognise to identify /verify human characteristics rapidly and automatically, in real time.Unique physiological characteristics or behavioural mannerisms are examined in biometrics verification for an individuals identity. Physiological characteristics are essentially unchangeable such as hand geometry, iris pattern , palm prints, face structure and vane shape etc .while behavioural characteristic such as ones signature, voice or keystroke dynamics are changea ble and these behavioural characteristics can change over time. They are both controllable and less controllable actions.The initial sample of the biometrics guidebook, which is stored in the selective information base during the Enrolment, must be updated each time it is used. Although behaviour characteristics based biometrics is less costly and less intimidating to users, physiological characteristics have a tendency to offer greater accuracy and security. In any case, both techniques grant an extensively higher take aim of identification and verification as compare to smart cards or passwords technologies.A password or personal identification number (PIN) is not unique for an individual ,it can be stolen ,forgotten or lost, while a biometric characteristic is unique to each individual it can be used to prevent fraud or theft. It cannot be lost, stolen or forgotten.There already many places such as research laboratories, refutal (military) installations, VIP offices, day care centres and cash points where access is guarded by biometrics base au and thentication system.The followers biometric identifiers currently obtainable or under development are fingerprints, body aroma, ear shape, face recognition, keystroke dynamics, palm print, retinal scan, iris pattern, signature, DNA, vein check and voice pattern.Biometrics-based SystemsA biometric based system is a system that in some way uses physical characteristics or personal traits of a human being. These systems are not only, mainly used for security, but also use for encryption.EncryptionThe processes of translating a message (plaintext), with the help of bundle, into a programmed message/encoded text (Cipher text), called Encryption. This is usually accomplished using a secret key and a cryptographic code. 4Type of Biometrics-based SystemsThere are two types of Biometrics-based systems.One-to-one systems (Verification system)One-to-many systems (Identification System)One-to-one system (verification)Th is type of biometric system works on the base of one to one catching and authentication principles where the system asks and attempts to answer the question Am I who I claim to be? At first a biometric sample of a person is provided to the system and then the system matches this sample to the previously stored template during the document mode for that person. The system then decides whether that is the person who claims the identity. After a successful matching of the fresh sample with the stored template, the system authenticates the person. These types of systems are also referred to as verification systems. The verification system is a fast response system because it minimises the use of resources and time by providing biometrics sample/ information to the system which specifies the stored template in the data base for that person. 5One-to-many system (identification)This type of biometrics system works on the base of one to many recognition principles. The system attempts to a nswer the question, Who am I? The basic purpose of this system to identify a persons identity by performing matches against all biometrics templates stored in a data base or a data library. A person does not claim his/her identity to the system instead the person just gives the system some biometric data. The system then performs to match this data to all templates previously stored in the database and decides whether a match can be made. It is not necessary that the system responds with the persons name, it could be the persons ID or other unique identity. These types of systems are referred to as identification systems 6. Identification systems have a slow response as compared to verification systems. This is because they require much more powerful resources due to the fact that more comparisons are required by identification systems.The biometrics identification system also prevents a person from registering twice on the system and ensures that a person is not already present in a data base. This type of system can be used in a king-sized scale public benefits organisation, such as being used at banks where a person would try opening a second account on another name. This system can also be used with immigration where a person could try to enter the country on false documents.General Biometrics Base Authentication System ModelA general biometrics base authentication system model consists of three major components, hardware, software and interface. Hardware is used to capture the biometrics information and software is used to maintain and manage it while an interface with application system that will use the result to confirm an individuals identity. The system operates in two different modesEnrolment modeAuthentication modeEnrolment modeIn this mode a users biometrics data is provided to a system, which stores this users biometric sample in a database or data library as a template. Hardware such as a biometrics readers/ scanners, cameras are used to captur e biometrics sample. This stored template is then labelled with a user identity e.g. name, identification number etc.The way biometrics operateSome biometric base authentication systems may need a number of biometrics samples in order to build a profile of the biometric characteristics. These exclusive characteristics are then extracted and changed in to numerical code by the system. Which is then stored in to the biometric system as a biometric template for the person who enrolled? The template is store in the memory storage of the system, or in computer database, smart card or barcode. A verge is set in to the biometrics base authentication system according to the level of security 7, (a high threshold is set for high level of security)To secure the template to the person, a turn on or other mean of securing such as personal identification number, or a smart card that store the template which read by a card reader during the authentication mode, are use in biometrics. In some bi ometrics system when ever a person interacts with the system a impudent biometrics sample is provide to the system which is compared to the template. If this new sample and stored template is match (the score of new match if exceed from the set threshold then access is granted to that person).As both physical and behavioural characteristics are inconsistent with time, this change may be due to the age of the person, general health condition, working and environmental conditions and time pushs etc. the biometric base authentication system must allow for these delicate changes, in this case sooner a match is recorded a threshold *1 is set. This can take the form of an accuracy score *2. The comparison between the template and new sample must exceed this set threshold. If it not exceeds the system will not record the match and will not identify the person.This use of a threshold gives biometric technologies a significant advantage over passwords, PINs and ID badges. The use of a thr eshold affords a tremendous degree of flexibility and if the comparison between the new biometric sample and the template exceeds the stated threshold, identity will be confirmed.Threshold-a predefine number, often controlled by system administer, which establish the degree of correlation necessary for a comparison to be deemed a match.Score A number indicating the degree of similarity or correlation of a biometrics matchCapture, extraction, comparison and match/non match are the four stages use by all biometric authentication systems.Capture A physical or behavioural sample is captured by the system during enrolment.Extraction unique data is extracted from the sample and a template is created.Comparison the template is then compared with a new sample.Multimodal Biometric SystemIn some environments a signal biometrics identifier base system such as finger scan, face scan or iris scan etc often not able to meet the desired performance requirement of the organization. Different bi ometrics base identification system such as face recognition, finger print verification and vice verification, is integrated and worked as a single biometrics base identification system. Multimodal biometrics base identification system is use to over come the limitation of the single identifier biometrics base identification system.Initial experimental results reveal that the identity established by such an integrated system is more reliable than the identity established by a signal biometrics identifier base system. 8Selecting the Right ApproachIn Different Environment Different biometrics base authentication systems are used. To choose the right approach to biometrics authentication it is necessary to understand the requirement of the organisation, the application of the biometrics system, and characteristics of the biometrics crooks itself. followers factors are also important to choose a biometrics base authentication system, which most devices cant store raw fingerprints and t hat fingerprints cant be theorize based on the data stored within these systems. Intrusiveness is another factor affecting user acceptance of some devices, particularly iris and retinal scan systems. 9 billet objective of the organisationThe most important aspect to consider when selecting a biometrics base authentication system is the organisation business objectives. The resource biometrics system must meet or exceed organisational business objectives as well as sustain organisation in the coming years. Business objective is the bottom line where organisation starts and end.User acceptancesSome biometrics, such as fingerprints, may be apparent as an assault of personal privacy. The system must not associate with other govt agencies biometrics (finger print) recognition system that most devices cant store raw fingerprints and that fingerprints cant be reconstructed based on the data stored within these systems. General intrusiveness can be another factor affecting user acceptance of some devices, particularly iris and retinal scanning systems. Following are the errors of biometrics base authentication system.False acceptance rate (FAR)False acceptance rate (FAR) is a system error. It is the rate at which an interloper can be recognized as a valid user. In one -to-one match during user verification, false acceptance is based on fake attempts, not on the total number of attempts by valid users.If FAR is 1%, it means one out of century users trying to break into the system will be successful 10. FARs become more critical when you attempt to identify users based on biometrics, instead of alone trying to verify a person with a one-to-one or one-to-few operationFalse discard rate (FRR)False reject rate (FRR) is another type of error of biometrics system. It is the rate at which a valid user is rejected from the system. Consider a finger print recognition system unfortunately, the conditions under which the original sample was collected can never be exactly dupl icated when the user submits subsequence biometrics information to be compared. False reject rate may occur due to following variations.Rotation and Translation because of different positioning of the finger on the finger print device.Downward pressure on the surface of the input device which changes the scale of input device.Non-permanent or semi-permanent distortions like skin disease, scars, sweat, etcTo over come FRR it is essential that all biometrics base authentication systems have a threshold value in order to allow for minor differences.With out threshold value FRR occurs and valid users will be probably rejected by system. If the threshold value is too high FAR occur 9. It is there for necessary to find a proper threshold value.Organisational environmentsAs stated it is important to consider the organisational environment when selecting biometrics base authentication system. Users with wet, dirty or dry hand have experienced problems with finger and palm recognition system . People using gloves generally cant use these systems. Face recognition system cant be easily be used in medical environments where hood and masks are used by users.CostThe direct cost of the system (hardware and software) is the initial considerations. Due to the improvement of features and functionality the over all cost of biometrics system reduces. It not only reduces fraud and eliminating problems associated with stolen or forgotten passwords but also reduces the help desk role.SummaryThe subject of this chapter is biometrics, which is defined as a method of verifying an individuals identity based on measurement of the individuals physical feature(s) or repeatable action(s) where those features and/or actions are both unique to that individual and measurable.A biometrics system which consists of enrolment mode and authentication mode, unique physiological characteristics or behavioural mannerisms are examined in biometrics verification for an individuals identity. either biom etric systems essentially operate in a similar way in a four-stage process that is automated and computerized which are Capture, Extraction, Comparison and Match/non-match.Biometrics system one-to-one is based on one to one matching and authentication principles and is mainly used for verification purposes, while biometrics system one to many works on the principles of one-to-many recognition and is used for identification.Multimodal biometrics base identification system is used to over come the limitation of the signal identifier biometrics base identification system in which different biometrics base identification system such as face recognition, finger print verification and vice verification, is integrated and worked as a single biometrics base identification system.Methodologies of Biometrics AuthenticationAn overviewAs stated, different biometric systems are use in different organisations according to their requirements. The most common biometrics system in use today includes fingerprint recognition, iris recognition, and voice recognition and face recognition systems. There are also other biometric systems available like retina recognition, vein pattern recognition, signature and DNA matching systems. These systems are not as widely used yet for various reasons.These biometrics systems can be integrated into any application that requires security, access control and identification or verification of people. With biometric security we can dispense with the key, the password and the PIN code the access-enabler is a person, not something person know or something in his /her possession. Biometrics systems secured resources are based on who a person is. Biometrics systems also minimise the risk that is associated with less advanced technologies while at the same time offering a higher level of security and convenience.Fingerprint Recognition SystemFingerprints are one of the human physiological characteristics that do not change throughout someones life. Ev en identical twin have different fingerprint patterns. The chance of identical twins to have the same fingerprint is less than one in a billion. Fingerprint recognition is generally considered the most practical system for its reliability, non-intrusive interfaces, and cost-effectiveness. In recent years, fingerprints have rallied significant support as the biometric technology that will probably be most widely used in the future. In addition to general security and access control applications, fingerprint verifiers are installed at different organisations such as, defence/military organisations health care, banking and finance, application services providers, immigration, law enforcement etc.The fingerprints strength is its acceptance, convenience and reliability. It takes little time and effort for somebody using a fingerprint identification device to have his or her fingerprint scanned. Studies have also found that using fingerprints as an identification source is the least intru sive of all biometric techniques. 15Verification of fingerprints is also fast and reliable. Users experience fewer errors in matching when they use fingerprints versus many other biometric methods. In addition, a fingerprint identification device can require very little space on a desktop or in a machine. Several companies have produced capture units small than a deck of cards.One of the biggest fears of fingerprint technology is the theft of fingerprints. Skeptics point out that latent or residual prints left on the glass of a fingerprint scanner may be copied. However, a good fingerprint identification device only detects live fingers and will not acknowledge fingerprint copies.12Main Feature of Finger print verification systemAnalysis of minutia points i.e. finger image ridge (verification) endings, bifurcations or branches made by ridges.One of the most commercially successful biometric technologies.Important for applications where it is necessary to verify the identity of thos e who gain access.How fingerprint recognition system worksIn biometrics systems fingerprint recognition system is the fas exam verification /identification (One-to-One / One-to-Many) system as shown in figure 3, 4, 5. Like other biometrics recognition systems it performs fingerprint recognition with the help of specialised hardware. This specialised hardware is supported by the conventional computer hardware and special software. All biometrics systems operate in two modes, enrolment mode and authentication mode (as discussed in the previous chapter). A sample of the fingerprint of a live person is provided to the system which is then converted into mathematical code (Template) and stored for the enrolee into the database.In the first step of the authentication process, a fingerprint impression is provided to the system. The system takes a digital image (input image figure 311 below) using different techniques including scanner, optical, and ultrasound or semiconductor chip technolo gies. The digital image of the fingerprint includes several unique features in terms of ridge bifurcations and ridge endings, collectively referred to as minutiae. 22In the next step the system uses an automatic feature extraction algorithm to locate these features in the fingerprint image, as shown in Figure 312.Each of these features is commonly represented by its location (x, y, and z) and the ridge direction at that location however the feature extraction stage may miss some minutiae and may generate spurious minutiae due to sensor noise and other variability in the imaging process. The elasticity of the human skin also affects the feature extraction process. 33In the final stage, a final decision of match and non match is made on the bases of similarity between the two sets of features after compensating for the rotation, conversion and dimension. This similarity is often expressed as a score. A decision threshold is first selected. If the score is below the threshold, the fing erprints are determined not to match if the score is above the threshold, a correct match is declared an authentication is granted to the person. sword lily and Retina Recognition SystemBiometrics which analyse the intricate and unique characteristics of the eye can be divided into two different fields, gladiolus and Retina. Iris and retinal scans both deal with the human eye. They are done in an extremely different way as compared to other biometrics technology.Iris Recogniton SystemIris recognition biometrics base authentication systems have unique characteristics and features of the human iris used to verify the identity of an individual. The iris is the area of the eye where the pigmented or colour circle, usually brown or blue, rings the dark pupil of the eye. It consists of over 400 unique distinguishing characteristics that can be quantified and used for an individual identity. However, only about 260 of those characteristics are captured in a live iris identification proces s 25. Iris are composed before birth and, except in the event of an injury to the eyeball, remain unchanged throughout an individuals lifetime. Eyeglasses and contact lenses present no problems to the quality of the image and the iris recognition /scan systems test for a live eye by checking for the normal continuous fluctuation in the pupil size. As Iris patterns are extremely complex and unique they carry an astonishing amount of information. The fact that an individuals right and left eye are different and that patterns are easy to capture, it establishes iris recognition

Truth of the Myths of Nature :: Philosophy Nature Papers

Truth of the Myths of NatureThe term nature myths designates narratives presenting what-is as in demonstrateigible in terms of value and nub. Such narratives function to remind ecological activism by articulating such presuppositions as the conviction that what we do matters, destruction of nature is intrinsically wrong, and the possibility of nondestructive human beings. However, such narratives motivate only if they atomic number 18 regarded in some sense as true. The question is, in what sense? Not in an objectivist sense (e.g. von Ranke), since value-even if intrinsic-is a subject related reality. Not in an idealist sense (e.g. Cassirer), since they respect the autonomy of reality. Nor in a depth sense of expressing an alleged essential condition of guilt (e.g. Heidegger and Patocka), since this would remain a electropositive description, albeit one level re locomote. Instead, I propose treating nature myths as orienting the world (e.g. Jaspers) and guiding human components t herein. As such, nature myths can be verbalise to be true (as in Ricoeurs adamic myth) or false (as in the myth of Man the Master) inasmuch as they nominate or fail to provide adequate guidance for sustainable coexistence with all of the Earth. The purpose of this paper is to ask in what sense, if any, ecological nature myths can be said to be non only ennobling and moving, only if also in some significant sense true, able to claim a validity independent of the assent of those who tell and hear them.I wish to use the term myth rather broadly to indicate not only the alleged spontaneous outpourings from the depth of our psyche, beloved to romantically inclined philosophers and psychologists, but rather all narratives which describe the cosmos and the place of humans therein in terms of relations of value and meaning rather than in terms of mathematico-causal relations in spacetime. (1) In the quaint terminology of Husserls Ideen II, they are face-to-faceistic narratives, render ing reality intelligible in terms of personal that is, intrinsically subject-related categories. (2)Such narratives in fact play a crucial role in the effort to forge a sustainable mode of coexistence amidst humans and the rest of the creation. Humans may select the means for dealing with ecological damage in the light of natural scientific analysis but they are moved to deal with it at all by mythico-poetic articulation rather than by theoretical reconstruction of their lived experience.Thus Rachel Carson, rigorous analytical chemist, moved her fellow humans by evoking their empathy through value laden poetic imagery.

Benifits Of Technology Essay -- essays research papers

Man, powered by his imagination and inquisitive character, has wondered he mechanisms of Nature since time infinite. This quest for the truth, the ways in which his surrounding works, has led to mevery a scientific discoveries and innovations. Since the art of making fire and creating handcrafted tools, our civilization has come a long way. Science and Technology argon making advances at an amazing rate. From telephones to the Internet, calculators to computers, cars to rockets and satellites, we are submerged in a sea of discoveries and inventions made possible by Science. Fields like Medicine and communications have made inroads into our cultures and thus our lifestyles. So vast is the impact of Science in our lives, that people fear the unthinkable. It leads them to accusations such as Science tries to play God. However, according to Hume, God is part of the order that exists in the universe. If so, then Science is just helping us discover the Almighty, which most people perceive as the Ultimate Truth. To quote Charles Pierce, ""There is one matter even more vital to science than intelligent methods and that is, the sincere desire to find out the truth, whatever it may be." Repeatedly, it is also heard that we are so dependent on Science and Technology that we who create it are nonhing but mere puppets. How can we be the slaves of this great resource? In fact, it would not be wrong to term Science as a friend of Humanity. This faithful friend has come finished many a times. We have reaped incalculable benefits out of this friendship. In return, the sacrifices we had to make constituted just a thin price in return. This price can be termed as a small token of appreciation for our friend, Science. According to an existential argument, existence precedes essence. If so, then human existence is absurd and unjustified. The goal of a human being then is to guarantee his existence. We humans tried to take charge of our own lives by choosing to ju stify its cause. According to Mahlotra, a person who is aware of the fact that by the freedom of select we have, we are responsible for our actions and performs those actions acknowledging freedom of others too, is the one who shall find meaning in his life. Satre points out for us that a man is nothing else than a series of undertakings, that he is a sum, the organization, the ensemble of the relationsh... ... thus shrink of a thought of war on an enemy. In my opinion, Technology and Science like most things have some(prenominal) the good and the bad side to it. There are definitely certain ethical and legal issues associated with it. However, looking more closely at our world, we find ethics in most of the disciplines including Religion. People can take advantage of any field if they wish to, but our social and political ties prevent most of us from acting in manners considered as taboos. Some people who yet work in ways to disrupt the social structure are practically times r ejected. Further there are laws in place to guarantee that no ones right to freedom of choice is infringed upon. Douglas Shrader tries to explain through the Utilitarianism Principle that if an act produces more good than harms for a federation, it can be reasoned out as a right thing to do for the society as a whole. Similarly, if we take a balance and weigh the benefits and costs of Science and Technology, we would find that the case is not even close. The benefits far outweigh any costs connected with Technology and Science. In fact, it seems almost impossible now to imagine a world living without its Science and Technology.