The History Boys

â€Å"The History Boys† is about eight boys of high academic abilities who are preparing to sit the Oxbridge entry exam. They are taught by two homosexual teachers, Hector and Irwin, who have total different teaching strategies. Hector is an older man with strong feelings towards poetry and has no particular teaching program and gropes his students and it seems that the boys don't really enjoy it though at the end it shows that they are quite ok with that. Irwin, a much younger man, is more sensible about teaching. He is the new teacher that has been taken in to teach the students about how to stand out between their competitors with getting into Oxford. There is quite some competition between both the teachers with Hector being older and Irwin being more attractive and being very close in age with the boys. â€Å"He does, depressingly so† Hector seems very jealous and depressed at the fact that the new teacher Irwin is clever. This means that there is even more competition for Hector and that if he wants to impress the boys, he needs to work harder. Irwin is obviously younger and even more attractive than Hector which could make things even more complicated for Hector. Hector is clearly gay and gropes his students, but what the students do not know is that Irwin too is gay. Hector obviously has realised that the students don't really mind him groping them as they are not objecting in any way. He could be scared that Irwin would do the same as he does and therefore because of his attractiveness the boys would like Irwin more than they like Hector. The fact that their teaching strategies are so different makes it even more interesting to compare the two together. At one point in the story, both teachers teach the boys at the same time. â€Å"We don't know who we are, sir. Your class or Mr. Irwin's.† At Irwin's lessons, the boys are more serious, as Irwin has a programme. At Hector's lessons they are more thoughtful and they decide how to start the lessons. So when both teachers are teaching at the same time it gets a little difficult and they boys don't really know how to behave. Mrs. Lintott is not very surprised at the fact that Irwin is intelligent. Read also History Quizzes â€Å"The Catcher in the Rye is a 1951 novel by J. D. Salinger. Originally published for adults, the novel has become a common part of high school and college curricula throughout the English-speaking world†7 It's quite strange that the book was originally published for adults and now is used widely in schools and colleges. â€Å"Let each child that's in your care have as much neurosis as the child can bear.† This is a section from Auden's poem Letter to Lord Byron. He could be meaning that it's no harm if you bring up your children in a hard way as it will be good as long as it does not go too far. So really, the books that are not liked by the children and yet are forced upon them won't harm them and it will be useful to them one day. In the next section of the play, Irwin and the boys are talking about the Second World War and the reasons for why it really happened. Irwin starts off and lets the boys come to a conclusion. â€Å"Which, sir, since Wilfred Owen says men were dying like cattle, is the appropriate word.† Hector finds it important that they know poems by heart as it will be understood by them one day, and that is what really happens here. They use their knowledge that's given over by Hector not just in English but in their other lessons meaning that learning these poems by heart really is useful. The poem describes how so many men were dying during the war that they looked like masses of animal. â€Å"First Class†¦I am asleep.† The fact that he is asleep is because he has read exactly the same story for 8 times and he had rather read something what would be outside people's comfort zone. Especially when that essay can guarantee you a place in on of the top universities you need to think for yourself and try to stand out within the crowd, your competitors. â€Å"What has that got to do with anything?† Writing an essay on history should not per se be about the truth. History is truth as far as the writers are concerned and is usually written by those that were victorious (in a war for example). History is history for those who want to believe it is history from the victorious perspectives. If you read it from the perspective of the conquered you will hear another story and the other would be blamed. â€Å"We still don't like to admit the war was even partly our fault because so many of our people died. According to Irwin, the Second world lead to many people dying which is why people are sensitive about it but what they do not know is that there were people that actually enjoyed the war. According to him, and he is referring the poets, â€Å"most of them seem to have enjoyed the war.†13 Because of the war the poets had something to write about, that's where they got their inspiration from. If there was no war, they would not have been able to write such powerful poems without a lot of difficulty. When you have experienced something yourself it is much easier to write about it. Poems are the words of the poet and you can interpret it in any way you like yet you cannot exactly know what the poet meant with his words. â€Å"In other words†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Again, this is something they have learned in Hector's lessons. Irwin thinks the lessons of Hector are more fun than educational but this clearly says that they do learn things in his lesson. At schools teachers spoon-feed their students all the way through. When Rudge asks Irwin; â€Å"What do I write down?†15 Irwin responds with; â€Å"I must not write down every word that teacher says.†16 Irwin clearly wants them to think for themselves. He's happy to help them along and tell them what direction they need to go to, but at the end of the day, it has to be them that think it through and they should come to an own conclusion on their own. The History Boys â€Å"The History Boys† is about eight boys of high academic abilities who are preparing to sit the Oxbridge entry exam. They are taught by two homosexual teachers, Hector and Irwin, who have total different teaching strategies. Hector is an older man with strong feelings towards poetry and has no particular teaching program and gropes his students and it seems that the boys don't really enjoy it though at the end it shows that they are quite ok with that. Irwin, a much younger man, is more sensible about teaching. He is the new teacher that has been taken in to teach the students about how to stand out between their competitors with getting into Oxford. There is quite some competition between both the teachers with Hector being older and Irwin being more attractive and being very close in age with the boys. â€Å"He does, depressingly so† Hector seems very jealous and depressed at the fact that the new teacher Irwin is clever. This means that there is even more competition for Hector and that if he wants to impress the boys, he needs to work harder. Irwin is obviously younger and even more attractive than Hector which could make things even more complicated for Hector. Hector is clearly gay and gropes his students, but what the students do not know is that Irwin too is gay. Hector obviously has realised that the students don't really mind him groping them as they are not objecting in any way. He could be scared that Irwin would do the same as he does and therefore because of his attractiveness the boys would like Irwin more than they like Hector. The fact that their teaching strategies are so different makes it even more interesting to compare the two together. At one point in the story, both teachers teach the boys at the same time. â€Å"We don't know who we are, sir. Your class or Mr. Irwin's.† At Irwin's lessons, the boys are more serious, as Irwin has a programme. At Hector's lessons they are more thoughtful and they decide how to start the lessons. So when both teachers are teaching at the same time it gets a little difficult and they boys don't really know how to behave. Mrs. Lintott is not very surprised at the fact that Irwin is intelligent. Read also History Quizzes â€Å"The Catcher in the Rye is a 1951 novel by J. D. Salinger. Originally published for adults, the novel has become a common part of high school and college curricula throughout the English-speaking world†7 It's quite strange that the book was originally published for adults and now is used widely in schools and colleges. â€Å"Let each child that's in your care have as much neurosis as the child can bear.† This is a section from Auden's poem Letter to Lord Byron. He could be meaning that it's no harm if you bring up your children in a hard way as it will be good as long as it does not go too far. So really, the books that are not liked by the children and yet are forced upon them won't harm them and it will be useful to them one day. In the next section of the play, Irwin and the boys are talking about the Second World War and the reasons for why it really happened. Irwin starts off and lets the boys come to a conclusion. â€Å"Which, sir, since Wilfred Owen says men were dying like cattle, is the appropriate word.† Hector finds it important that they know poems by heart as it will be understood by them one day, and that is what really happens here. They use their knowledge that's given over by Hector not just in English but in their other lessons meaning that learning these poems by heart really is useful. The poem describes how so many men were dying during the war that they looked like masses of animal. â€Å"First Class†¦I am asleep.† The fact that he is asleep is because he has read exactly the same story for 8 times and he had rather read something what would be outside people's comfort zone. Especially when that essay can guarantee you a place in on of the top universities you need to think for yourself and try to stand out within the crowd, your competitors. â€Å"What has that got to do with anything?† Writing an essay on history should not per se be about the truth. History is truth as far as the writers are concerned and is usually written by those that were victorious (in a war for example). History is history for those who want to believe it is history from the victorious perspectives. If you read it from the perspective of the conquered you will hear another story and the other would be blamed. â€Å"We still don't like to admit the war was even partly our fault because so many of our people died. According to Irwin, the Second world lead to many people dying which is why people are sensitive about it but what they do not know is that there were people that actually enjoyed the war. According to him, and he is referring the poets, â€Å"most of them seem to have enjoyed the war.†13 Because of the war the poets had something to write about, that's where they got their inspiration from. If there was no war, they would not have been able to write such powerful poems without a lot of difficulty. When you have experienced something yourself it is much easier to write about it. Poems are the words of the poet and you can interpret it in any way you like yet you cannot exactly know what the poet meant with his words. â€Å"In other words†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Again, this is something they have learned in Hector's lessons. Irwin thinks the lessons of Hector are more fun than educational but this clearly says that they do learn things in his lesson. At schools teachers spoon-feed their students all the way through. When Rudge asks Irwin; â€Å"What do I write down?†15 Irwin responds with; â€Å"I must not write down every word that teacher says.†16 Irwin clearly wants them to think for themselves. He's happy to help them along and tell them what direction they need to go to, but at the end of the day, it has to be them that think it through and they should come to an own conclusion on their own. The History Boys How does Bennet use dramatic comedy to offer criticism of contemporary attitudes to education in The History Boys? In this essay I am going to explain how Alan Bennet uses dramatic comedy to criticise the contemporary attitudes towards education in the History Boys. The contemporary attitudes that are criticised are Utilitarianism, Humanism and Pragmatism. He does this by using a range of satirical devices. Satire is the use of humour, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule to expose and criticize people's stupidity or vices, particularly in the context of contemporary politics and other topical issues.It is usually used to comment on society by observing their way of thinking and they way they behave. The History Boys is a satire because throughout the book each attitude is being criticised through the characters; The Headmaster, Hector, Irwin and The Boys. All attitudes are shown to be in disagreement with each other as they all have a different view on education. The first attitude towa rds education Bennet presents us with is the Utilitarian attitude. This is where you only consider what will be best for a group of people and not just the individual.At the start of the novel Bennet introduces us to the character of the Headmaster who criticises the utilitarian attitude towards education in Thatcher’s Britain. This is shown to us in the opening scene of the play which was set in the staff room and he headmaster was discussing the boy’s A Level results with their history teacher, Mrs Lintott (Dorothy). â€Å"Their A Levels are very good†. The fact that ‘very good’ is in italics and is emphasised upon by the headmaster suggests to the readers that he is taking pleasure for himself from what the boys have achieved.By showing this Bennet has led the audience to acknowledge that the headmaster takes pleasure in others success even though he appears utilitarian. As we continue into the scene with Mrs Lintott and the Headmaster, we are sh own that the headmaster praises her for her part in helping the boys to pass however it could be argued that he is patronising her at the same time by talking down to her. This is shown when he says â€Å"Thanks to you Dorothy†.Mrs Lintott suggests that they should continue with the way they are teaching in order to achieve better results however the Headmaster interrupts her by saying â€Å"yes yes† and continues to listing what he would like to happen. This is shown when he says â€Å"I am thinking league tables, open scholarships and reports to the Governors†. The fact that the headmaster lists what he wants portrays him, to the audience, as being a selfish character, he does not want what’s good for the boys but he wants things that will make him look good. The constant use of â€Å"I want† also backs up the idea of him being selfish.However he also talks about the boys doing themselves justice, this could make us as readers question whether he does genuinely care about the boys future or whether it is an act. This is shown when he says â€Å"I want them to do themselves justice I want them to do you justice†. Overall the audience could argue that in this scene, because there are differences between both the headmaster and Mrs Lintott there is a form of juxtaposition between them as the headmaster mocks Mrs Lintott’s attitude towards education which shows us that he does not care about what the boys achieve as individuals, he cares about what they achieve as a group.This therefore represents how Bennet has shown the Headmaster to criticise the Utilitarian view towards education. The second attitude towards education Bennet presents us with is the Humanism attitude. This is system of thought that centres on humans and their values, capacities, and worth. Bennet introduces us to the character of Hector. Within the very first page, Hector’s impression of education is set, where he refers to his subject a s â€Å"useless knowledge† and â€Å"A waste of time†.This immediately suggests to the reader Hector’s general apathy towards the subject, and, seeming to mock Houseman goes on to quote, â€Å"all knowledge is useful whether or not it serves the slightest human use†. However, as we learn that Hector is a man of â€Å"studied eccentricity†, and Bennett later goes on to write in the stage directions, â€Å"an elaborate pantomime, all this† it could be assumed that Hector’s views of education differ from those he presents within the first scene.It is soon revealed that Hector’s idea of education is â€Å"the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake† –showing that he is not opposed to teaching; he instead wishes to, as Timms puts it, make the boys â€Å"more rounded human beings†. This, then, gives context to Hector’s referring to General studies as â€Å"bread eaten in secret†: his teachings are not to help the boys’ progressive school careers (â€Å"forget about Oxford and Cambridge†), but to provide the boys with something more personal and lifelong.For instance, when Timms tells Hector that he doesn’t understand  poetry, Hector calms him by saying that he, himself, doesn’t always understand poetry, but to â€Å"know it now and understand it whenever†, going on to say, â€Å"We’re making your deathbeds here, boys†. Hector’s approach is a clear substitute and â€Å"antidote† to Irwin’s direct and driven approach. The third and final attitude towards education Bennet presents us with is the Pragmatism attitude. This is basically where things are dealt with realistically rather than theoretically. Irwin first arrives at the school as the boys are about to start studying for their entrance exams to Oxford and Cambridge University.He is immediately give the important job of teaching the boys just because he s ays he went to Oxford University. This is shown when the Headmaster says to Irwin â€Å"Well you were at Cambridge† and Irwin replies saying â€Å"Oxford, Jesus. † At this point it could be argued that this is Bennett’s way of demonstrating how where you learn can sometimes be worth more than what you learn, which supports the Pragmatic view towards education it The History Boys. The first time we see Irwin it is in the future when he is acting as a spin doctor for the Government, he is in a wheelchair which acts as a narrative hook to the end of the play.He is telling the members of government how to act and what their attitude should be like and he is trying to convince them to agree with the idea of getting rid of the system of trial by jury. This leads on to Bennet showing us that Irwin has a different style of teaching to hectors, he does not educate the boys, but he teaches them how to write essays and how to pass their exams. This is how Bennett shows tha t the education system has change so that young people are not being educated as well as they should be, they’re just being taught how to pass and nothing the might find useful later on in life.â€Å"You can write down, Rudge that I must not write down every word that teacher says. † This quotation is said by Irwin and it shows us that Irwin is saying to the boys until they don’t write down what they have learnt in their own words then they won’t understand anything and they won’t be able to be independent and do as well when it comes to doing their exams. This clearly shows that Irwin’s method of educating the boys is clearly different to the other teachers.However other characters such as Hector seem to feel that Irwin is trying to replace his as the boys favourite teacher as they become fonder of Irwin they don’t seem to be as fond of Hector as they were before Irwin arrived. In contradiction to Hector, the Headmaster is fond of Ir win as he seems to think that Irwin will be the best thing for the boys and the school’s position on the League Tables. This is shown when the headmaster says â€Å"Get me scholarships, Irwin, pull us up the table. † The boys as a group show a suitably irrelevant attitude towards education. The History Boys â€Å"The History Boys† is about eight boys of high academic abilities who are preparing to sit the Oxbridge entry exam. They are taught by two homosexual teachers, Hector and Irwin, who have total different teaching strategies. Hector is an older man with strong feelings towards poetry and has no particular teaching program and gropes his students and it seems that the boys don't really enjoy it though at the end it shows that they are quite ok with that. Irwin, a much younger man, is more sensible about teaching. He is the new teacher that has been taken in to teach the students about how to stand out between their competitors with getting into Oxford. There is quite some competition between both the teachers with Hector being older and Irwin being more attractive and being very close in age with the boys. â€Å"He does, depressingly so† Hector seems very jealous and depressed at the fact that the new teacher Irwin is clever. This means that there is even more competition for Hector and that if he wants to impress the boys, he needs to work harder. Irwin is obviously younger and even more attractive than Hector which could make things even more complicated for Hector. Hector is clearly gay and gropes his students, but what the students do not know is that Irwin too is gay. Hector obviously has realised that the students don't really mind him groping them as they are not objecting in any way. He could be scared that Irwin would do the same as he does and therefore because of his attractiveness the boys would like Irwin more than they like Hector. The fact that their teaching strategies are so different makes it even more interesting to compare the two together. At one point in the story, both teachers teach the boys at the same time. â€Å"We don't know who we are, sir. Your class or Mr. Irwin's.† At Irwin's lessons, the boys are more serious, as Irwin has a programme. At Hector's lessons they are more thoughtful and they decide how to start the lessons. So when both teachers are teaching at the same time it gets a little difficult and they boys don't really know how to behave. Mrs. Lintott is not very surprised at the fact that Irwin is intelligent. Read also History Quizzes â€Å"The Catcher in the Rye is a 1951 novel by J. D. Salinger. Originally published for adults, the novel has become a common part of high school and college curricula throughout the English-speaking world†7 It's quite strange that the book was originally published for adults and now is used widely in schools and colleges. â€Å"Let each child that's in your care have as much neurosis as the child can bear.† This is a section from Auden's poem Letter to Lord Byron. He could be meaning that it's no harm if you bring up your children in a hard way as it will be good as long as it does not go too far. So really, the books that are not liked by the children and yet are forced upon them won't harm them and it will be useful to them one day. In the next section of the play, Irwin and the boys are talking about the Second World War and the reasons for why it really happened. Irwin starts off and lets the boys come to a conclusion. â€Å"Which, sir, since Wilfred Owen says men were dying like cattle, is the appropriate word.† Hector finds it important that they know poems by heart as it will be understood by them one day, and that is what really happens here. They use their knowledge that's given over by Hector not just in English but in their other lessons meaning that learning these poems by heart really is useful. The poem describes how so many men were dying during the war that they looked like masses of animal. â€Å"First Class†¦I am asleep.† The fact that he is asleep is because he has read exactly the same story for 8 times and he had rather read something what would be outside people's comfort zone. Especially when that essay can guarantee you a place in on of the top universities you need to think for yourself and try to stand out within the crowd, your competitors. â€Å"What has that got to do with anything?† Writing an essay on history should not per se be about the truth. History is truth as far as the writers are concerned and is usually written by those that were victorious (in a war for example). History is history for those who want to believe it is history from the victorious perspectives. If you read it from the perspective of the conquered you will hear another story and the other would be blamed. â€Å"We still don't like to admit the war was even partly our fault because so many of our people died. According to Irwin, the Second world lead to many people dying which is why people are sensitive about it but what they do not know is that there were people that actually enjoyed the war. According to him, and he is referring the poets, â€Å"most of them seem to have enjoyed the war.†13 Because of the war the poets had something to write about, that's where they got their inspiration from. If there was no war, they would not have been able to write such powerful poems without a lot of difficulty. When you have experienced something yourself it is much easier to write about it. Poems are the words of the poet and you can interpret it in any way you like yet you cannot exactly know what the poet meant with his words. â€Å"In other words†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Again, this is something they have learned in Hector's lessons. Irwin thinks the lessons of Hector are more fun than educational but this clearly says that they do learn things in his lesson. At schools teachers spoon-feed their students all the way through. When Rudge asks Irwin; â€Å"What do I write down?†15 Irwin responds with; â€Å"I must not write down every word that teacher says.†16 Irwin clearly wants them to think for themselves. He's happy to help them along and tell them what direction they need to go to, but at the end of the day, it has to be them that think it through and they should come to an own conclusion on their own.

Overcoming Defense Mechanisms Essay

Practical implications of each term are included for the benefit of organizations interested in applying theory in practice. Key words: organizational cohesion, action systems, compliance, culture of tradition, complete concrete systems, and symbolism Organizational Cohesion According to Etzioni (1961), cohesion can be defined as a positive expressive relationship among two or more actors that can reinforce negative and positive norms (p. ). He further differentiates cohesion bonds between persons of the same rank, peer cohesion, and cohesion bonds between persons of different ranks, hierarchical cohesion. The degree to which peer cohesion exists within an organization can determine how readily norms that are held by the majority of a given group or held by the most influential persons within a group will be accepted by the remaining group participants. In other words, peer cohesion dictates the degree to which actors within a given group are likely to mimic or adopt each other’s behavior and/or values. It has also been suggested by Homans (1951), that there is a direct correlation between the frequency and endurance of interaction within a group and the level of a group’s cohesiveness. In other words, the more group participants interact, the more likely it is that they will adopt each other’s mannerisms, outlooks, or orientations toward the larger group of which they are a part (Etzioni, 1961, p. 290). Assuming that norms that are beneficial to a particular organization are being fostered via peer ohesion, such as intra-team cooperation, the net effect could be a highly productive work environment with low employee turnover. Etzioni’s research implies that organizations with high peer cohesion tend to have low employee turnover, which reduces costs involved with recruiting and socializing new employees, knowledge capture, and maintaining daily work routines. However, it is important to note that cohesion can reinforce both negative and positive norms, which is to say behaviors that alienate an employee from an organization as well as behaviors that reinforce one’s commitment to an organization (p. 80 ). Reagans and McEvily (2003) suggest that cohesion, specifically social cohesion, influences the willingness of individuals to devote time and effort to assisting others within a given group, in addition to serving as a motivator to transfer knowledge to a coworker or colleague (p. 245). Ultimately, cohesion within an organizational group, can encourage a â€Å"you scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours† effect that can encourage knowledge exchange across employees and reduce direct peer-to-peer or intra-departmental competition amongst employees (Reagan & McEvily, 2003, p. 245). In other words, â€Å"by limiting competition, social cohesion promotes knowledge transfer,† which is an essential component of a learning and innovative organization (Reagans & McEvily, 2003, p. 247). Although organizational cohesion can foster â€Å"exchange relationships that build commitment† (Tyndall, 2012, p. 3), it is essential that organizational leaders recognize tipping points wherein too much cohesion could increase group-think and inhibit innovation, performance, and potentially disrupt a work-group’s alignment with the overall organization’s values, should a given group’s norms contradict such values (p. ). Where possible, organizational leaders might assess the power that cohesiveness has within their organization, identify the source of cohesiveness, be it an agent of the organization or the organization itself, and take the necessary action to either encourage or discourage the cohesiveness, depending on whether it currently work s in favor of the organization or to its detriment. Action Systems An action system embodies a collective effort to attain a single goal, as executed by interdependent work units’ processes, tasks, and functions. To attain its goal as a unit, a social action system adopts a structure and a process for organizing member activities† (De Ven, 1976, p. 25). An action system is a term used to describe a system that produces an output only if the necessary actions are completed by the appropriate parties throughout the entire production process-placing emphasis on the relationship that exists between actions and the larger task they accomplish. The existence of this term serves to illustrate a theoretical shift away from focusing on work units or groups and a shift toward focusing on the individual job holders’ roles within the larger group, analogous to speaking in of terms of cogs within a machine (Tyndall, 2012, p. 3). As Parsons (1951) has noted, â€Å"acts do not occur singly and discretely, they are organized in systems† (p. 7). Simply put, an action system is made up of two components: the actor and his situation (p. 7). By speaking in terms of action systems, the theorist or manager hopes to identify all factors that affect these two components in the name of achieving their end objective, be it decreasing production error and lags, and increasing production successes (non-defective output) or any combination thereof. The more an organization can identify all variables, resources, and actions required at each phase of production, the more it can regulate and manage them. â€Å"Resources and information flows are the basic elements of activity in organized forms of behavior† (De Ven, 1976, p. 25). If, for example, an actor works in reception at a doctor’s office, he/she might require a computer, medical forms, chairs for patients, clipboards, pens, etc. By tracking usage and resource requirements over an extended period of time, records might reveal that there are too many patients or too few chairs in the waiting area at any given time. Identifying this fail point will serve as a signal to the organization to either increase the number of chairs in the office, increase the number of business hours (to spread out patients), add a second partner, expand to a second location, or some other alternative. Total Quality Management, Lean Six Sigma, and Demings 14-Points of Quality are all examples of how organizations have provided structure to these very practices (Tyndall, 2012, p. 16-18) Just as an organization can identify, measure, and manage tangible resources along each stage of an action system, so too can an organization identify and measure intangible factors that influence workers orientation toward the organization and their assigned tasks. By understanding a worker’s motivation for being on the ob, an organization will be better equipped to frame that employee’s work and performance evaluation in such a way that will encourage the worker to achieve higher levels of performance. By structuring job functions in ways that directly attach task ownership to individual job holders, an organization can increase the accountability for that employee, and increase the likelihood of their experiencing satisfaction upon completely their assigned task –due to the ta sk’s proximity to its â€Å"owner† (Tyndall, 2012, p. 8). Forward-thinking and adaptable organizations will encourage transparency and two-way feedback between management and those who are managed. For this reason, it would be wise for organizations to seek input from employees when identifying areas of process improvement within action systems, share successes across the organization, and openly value collaboration between groups and collegiality within groups (Trist, 1981, p. 43, 57, & 49). Compliance Etzioni (1961) defines compliance as â€Å"a relationship consisting of the power employed by supervisors to control subordinates and the orientation of subordinates to this power† (p. xiii). Sciulli and Etzioni (1996) identify three sources of compliance: coercion, economic or pecuniary incentives, and normative values (p. 137). This interplay between the governors and the governed directly influences how an organization will function and be perceived by internal and external stakeholders. Further, the dynamic between these two parties sheds light on where power, and specifically the power to make change, resides within an organization. As was exemplified in The Challenger Disaster, the extent to which an organization’s members recognize when it is necessary to comply and when it is necessary to break from routine impinges on an organization’s ability to adapt and respond to catastrophic events: Argyris’s (1990) analysis of The Challenger Disaster brought to light the following: The problems were not only in the structure, rules, and independent monitoring devices. The problems also were that highly committed, well-intentioned, safety-oriented, can-do players reasoned and acted in ways that violated their own standards and made certain that this violation was covered up and that the cover-up was covered up. (p. 42). One could argue that NASA’s employees ignored their respective ethical instincts and instead complied with that of the organization, NASA: an unspoken practice of ignoring unsettling information in the name of making deadlines, satisfying stakeholders, or perhaps satisfying its own hubris. Regardless, this catastrophe serves to illustrate the negative implications of compliance, particularly as perpetuated through normative values. Organizational theorists, such as Ogbonna and Harris (1998) have set out to determine what behaviors within organizations evolve through genuine organic change and behaviors that evolve in response to deliberate actions taken by management via compliance. Their research indicates that efforts made by management to alter culture within an organization via compliance may prove successful, but not for a signal unified reason. In other words, an organization’s members may all buy-in to a behavioral modification or practice advocated by management, but for reasons that are unique to the individual members or groups of members within the organization. â€Å"Hence, a key implication of these findings is that managements attempting to alter culture should consider how multiple interpretations of the rationale for change influence the success of the change effort† (p. 284-285). Some changed in resigned compliance, some in authentic willingness, and some â€Å"cognitively accepted espoused values in order to further their careers† (p. 85-286). Management might benefit from this insight by carefully selecting which company practices or values they wish to indoctrinate employee with, particularly if such practices do not relate directly to tasks associated with production and instead relate to rules on how employees might govern themselves socially or culturally within an organization; if laun ching a new effort to encourage the valuing of X, perhaps it would be wise for management to seek employees’ input on why everyone should value X in order to determine whether a consensus on the promotion’s rationale exists. This will help ensure that all employees are not only helping to move the company in the same direction, but are doing so for the same or perhaps, intended, reasons. Culture of Tradition A culture of tradition within an organization consists of a subset of individual cultural traditions or â€Å"shared symbolic system[s] which function in interaction† (Parsons, 1961, p. 11). A culture of tradition is a culture that engender s its participants with values that center on traditional or historically patterns of interaction, patterns that have come to exist through repeated practice carried out by members of the organization. If an organization comes to value tradition, it could be inferred that such an organization will devalue or sanction behaviors that encourage or work in support of change, behaviors that we have come to know as organizational defenses or defensive routines. As Tyndall (2012) suggests, â€Å" defensive routines are rewarded by most organizational cultures because routines indicate a sense of caring and concern for people† (p. 13). Further, Tyndall suggests that routines are often protected by the same people who prefer that such routines not exist. Rather than expose detrimental cultural practices, organizations prefer to keep them hidden so as to prevent exposure and embarrassment (p. 13). For the purpose of this paper, let us assume that organizational identity and organizational culture are interconnected. Santos and Eisenhardt (2005) point out that â€Å"organizational identity helps members make sense of their situation by clarifying the defining attributes and purpose of the organization, thereby reducing ambiguity and providing direction† (p. 500). If an organization’s current culture, a culture of tradition, is borne out of circumstances from fifty years ago, it can be inferred that there will a disconnect or lack of alignment between the direction the organization needs to be going in and the direction it actually is going in. Santos and Eisenhardt go on to suggest that: Organizational members actively perform collective sensemaking (Weick 1995) through which they gain awareness of new information, share interpretations of prior actions, and converge on the meaning of environmental changes and appropriate courses of action. p. 500). Assuming that employees are constantly being exposed to new information, but are inhibited on how to make use of or capitalize on such information because of the existence of cultural constraints, it will not only discourage innovation within the organization, but will also stymie employee’s desire to exercise creativity and engage with the organization. Ultimately, an organization s hould work to align its identity, culture, and activities it carries out (p. 00), maintain traditions that to not impinge on efficacy of essential processes, and foster an environment that embraces conflict and change (Trist, 1981, p. 47). Complete Concrete Systems Parson’s (1951) defines a complete concrete system of social action as consisting of a social system, the personality systems of the individual actors involved, and the cultural system which is built into such actors actions (p. 5-6). A cultural or social system is stagnant, unless the elements included therein are carried out through practice and action via an action system (p. 17). He further elaborates: A social system consists in plurality of individual actors interacting with each other in a situation which has at least a physical or environmental aspect, actors who are motivated in terms of a tendency to the ‘optimization of gratification’ and whose relation to their situations, including each other, is defined and mediated in terms of a system of culturally structured and shared symbols. p. 5-6). Parsons emphasizes the need to consider these three elements independently, as no one can be further reduced or ignored in the context of the general theory of action systems. In short, Parsons wishes to draw attention to the interplay that exists between personality, culture, and the society in which these elements exist; one cannot consider personality without also considering the context in which it exists or has been cultivated. As an organization develops its sense of self, it might also come to recognize the types of personalities that it supports and the types of personalities that it prefers not to engage. Once an organization is able to identify the types of personalities it attracts or tends to hire, it might then explore the question of why it is that these personalities â€Å"fit† the organization; it may be that the personalities hired within an organization are in fact not working in favor of the organization’s larger mission, but instead reflect historical cultural practices that actually work against the organization. The more that an organization is able to hone in on the types of personalities, behaviors, and the types of individuals that it is best suited to hire or from which it would benefit the most, the better able it will be to refine the organization’s culture and overall defining character. This is not to suggest that an organization should attempt to hire one type of personality, but it is to suggest that an organization should attempt to identify the types of personalities best uited for particular work units, roles within such work units, and conceive of ways to encourage hiring, training, and evaluation practices, that foster the development of such individuals rather than inhibit them. Agents within an organization should be mindful of the personalities with which they interact, particularly when presenting ideas to or interacting with decision-makers. Framing ideas in ways that appeal to decision-makers could prove advantageous and foster productive discourse. Symbolism Symbolism, or symbolic systems of meaning, come into existence as individual social actors engage with social objects (Parsons, 1951, p. 10). An actor comes to expect or associate certain actions with particular results through practice. The dynamic relationship between actions and the associations one comes to assign to particular actions exists through communication that is both implicit and explicit across an organization. Like culture, symbols come to exist by observing or partaking in patterns of behavior; if I do X, Y happens, or on a more simple level, if I sit on X, X is a chair. These expectations form â€Å"pattern consistency† (Parsons, 1951, p. 10), or logical consistency that enable people to transmit information to one another in ways that can be easily understood, whether this transmission is intentional or unintentional. These transmissions deliver messages to the receiver and it is these messages that come to form symbols. For these reason, symbols are highly subjective and based on the perception of the message’s recipient. Organizations must be mindful of the role that symbolism has in shaping the culture of an organization. Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchinson, & Sowa (1986) define perceived organizational support (POS) as â€Å"global beliefs about the extent to which the organization cares about [employees] well-being and values their contributions† (Fuller, Barnett, Hester, Relyea, 2003, p. 789). Research consistently shows that perceived organizational support (POS) is positively correlated with organizational commitment. In other words, the more an organization’s employees perceive themselves to be supported by an organization, the more likely it is that they will commit themselves to the organization and its mission. Further, when people perceive that their organization values and appreciates them, they interpret it symbolically to mean that the organization has respect for them or sees them as having a high status within their organization. Perceiving one’s self as having high status, Gardner & Pierce (1998) suggest, will likely encourage commitment to an organization; this encourages a person to believe themselves to be worthy of being an organizational member (Fuller, et al. , p. 790).

Papers' Analysis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Papers' Analysis - Assignment Example Economies of scale are the cost advantage that comes from a product’s increased output. They arise due to an inverse relation between fixed costs per-unit and quantity produced. The more cars produced in this case, the lower the fixed cost per unit, as the cost is shared among a larger quantity of cars. They may also reduce unit variable costs due to synergies and operational efficiencies. Economies of scale are in two major types; external that arises from industry size and other extraneous factors and internal that arises from inside the firm (Motavalli 1). While benefits of this concept are obvious, I think they also impact on such areas as finance. For instance, a company like Ford Group would have a lower capital cost compared to smaller firms due to their ability to borrow at lower rates of interest. However, I believe that, even with this advantage, I think there is a finite upper limit to how Ford Group can grow in achieving economies of scale. When the hybrid car prod uction reaches a specific number, it will be more expensive to manage due to bureaucracy, complexity, and operational inefficiency. The results from Ford Group are also hard to ignore. For instance, the model T line of production and task specialization were integrated with standardization, as can be seen in their hybrid plant. The specialization that will go with the hybrid car production will lead to productivity increase. The coupling of specialization and standardization will ensure that the model parts will be of universal size at all times, which greatly reduces costs of restoration. However, it can also be argued that the reduction of costs by specialization and increase in productivity is offset by huge human costs. While there is little evidence of how economies of scale impact organizations like Ford in the long run, the idea has become a hallmark of Ford Group and other similar companies because it can be used all manufacturing functions; for example, marketing, research and development, distribution, and sales force utilization (Motavalli 1). Analysis # 2 The Texas drought of 2011 is bound to have ripple effects across the globe, especially with regards to agricultural products. Texas produces approximately 55% of cotton crop in the US, supplying the same to mills around the world. Because of the drought’s effect on cotton, the prices are on the up. The drought has also affected beef prices with ranchers being forced to sell off their cattle due to dramatic reductions in water and animal feed. The selling of, off valuable breeding stock is expected to see a long-term increase in the price of beef. It is also expected that there will be a 50% jump in the prices of wheat in winter because of the drought, especially since Texas accounts for 20% of wheat production (Hylton 1). The FAO price index for food raised to 6% in mid-2012, which was attributed to the unfavorable conditions of weather, particularly the drought currently ravaging parts of the United States, which have driven the cost of agricultural products up. However, what is happening now is more a climatic transition than a random weather event. The consequences have been predicted to be especially dire for the poor population in the world (Hylton 2). However, in my opinion, the prices of beef, wheat, and cotton will be affected by other factors, rather than by drought alone. The use of biofuels

Personal statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 13

Personal Statement Example I joined the Likie Fashion College to learn the basics about fashion and got an opportunity to express myself creatively. My sole ambition now is to become a professional pattern designer and set the fashion trends in motion. I wish to take a degree on the subject of pattern designer, as I think creating patterns is the backbone of the industry that sets in motion the subsequent activities for the final product. By now I have a clear understanding about pattern designing, and have developed the ability to identify and forecast the trends for the coming 18-24 months. I have good communication skills to explain the intricacies of my patterns to the prospective buying houses and I am sure to impress them to deal with me on an ongoing basis. I keep myself up-to-date about the latest fashion trends by extensive study on the subject of fashions. I have the skills to critically assess the products of the competitors, their strengths and weaknesses. Your College has the sterling facilities for the ambitious pattern designer students with your latest cutting edge design studio. I would like to take benefit of the facilities by being a regular student of your

Ludwig van Beethoven Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Ludwig van Beethoven - Essay Example Beethovens hearing began to decrease when he was in his twenties. After some years, he became completely deaf. Despite this, Beethoven continued to play piano. Beethoven established his career in Vienna in 1792. Thereafter Beethoven composed many works of a wide range and maturity style. In Vienna his main guide was Joseph Haydan. He received immense financial support in this place and continued to stay there. Between 1798 and 1802, Beethoven composed 2 important pieces of music, the string quartet and the symphony. Thereafter, he composed many pieces of music which were published and earned him some decent income. During this time, Beethoven taught piano to many famous personalities. Beethovens health began to deteriorate since 1811. Due to physical and emotional problems he dropped out of composition in early 1813. Thereafter he suffered from several emotional, personal, physical and financial problems. In the end of 1813, Beethoven did do some composition which actually became a hit. But again, after that, he developed prolonged illness. The ninth symphony came out in 1817. Since 1825, Beethovens health worsened and he died in

Should Abortion be Legal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Should Abortion be Legal - Essay Example Ousting a soul out of a living being is an act of brutality. Humans are the most civilized form of creatures to exist on earth and such a high status demands them to act responsibly with all the other organisms that we, humans, share this planet with. This entails respecting of the rights of people and animals alike and giving others preference over ourselves (Titus and Ross, 1999). The fulfillment of these conditions leads to a state known as humanity. If humanity demands wellbeing of entire world and not only human wellbeing then the question that arises here is, how humanity can allow abortions. Abortion refers to the killing or premature human fetus, to prevent its birth and commencement into the world. Abortion deprives a helpless and innocent soul from entering into the world, thus restricting it from its right to live. Irrespective of the circumstances, no soul shall be allowed to kill the other as per the basics of humanity, and considering this, abortion must not be legalize d. Why abortions must not be legalized? Imagine a baby, joyful, playful and cheerful in your arms. You start playing with the baby and all of a sudden you tell the baby that you are going to slaughter him for no fault of his own. Just imagine if the baby were to interpret your intentions and understand what you were saying, how would the baby have reacted then? The baby, the cheerful baby, would have begged you for his life. He would have broken down into tears and would have started screaming of your terrifying intentions. But no matter what, if you don’t need the baby, then you just don’t need it. This entire aesthetic dramatization is just a creative account of the definition of abortion. When a male and a female human participate in a successful sexual intercourse, a seed is planted into the ovaries of the female member resulting in the orientation of life of a human to be, the fetus. The example of a fetus is tantamount to that of a flower seed, sown into the grou nd for nurturing and development into a seedling, a plant and finally the flower. Ravaging the seed before it becomes a flower is equivalent to smashing the flower itself, when it has fully grown and developed. Abortion, as explained, is the killing of one life for no reason. Killing of humans is only permissible, logically and legally, under limited circumstances, including self-defense, war or may be in case of euthanasia. But killing of humans, that are premature in their body features, have no fault of their own, which can’t even defend themselves and are entirely dependent upon the mercy of others, is a major crime, a sin and a demented act of cowardice and butchery (Titus and Ross, 1999). On several instances screams out of excruciating pain and suffering have been heard from the aborted children as repeatedly reported by the housemaids and nurses in abortion houses, labor rooms and hospitals. Aborted children usually are conscious while they are led to death and they p erspire in disdain and discomfort striving to gain help from somewhere, somehow. The cold blooded murderers witness the scene and leave the place, without any regrets or sympathies whatsoever. Such cases have been on the verge of increase and an ever increasing number of people commit this crime, today, without any second thoughts whatsoever. Such acts have resulted in a transformation in human attitude towards

The Symbiotic Relationship Between the United States and Britain Essay

The Symbiotic Relationship Between the United States and Britain - Essay Example The Second World War was initially fought on the European Continent and American role was marginal till it came under Japanese attack at Pearl Harbor in December 1941. The American masses were generally against participation in a Continental War. The British were facing a crisis of sorts as France was overrun and the Soviet Union came under the throes of the biggest threat ever, Churchill the British Prime Minister was left to Britain’s dogged determination to survive the critical days till America joined the war effort. The incidents leading to Pearl Harbor, America’s reaction to Japan’s surprise attack and British response denote that Churchill had foreseen the eventuality of this strike and declared war against Japan within 24 hours. It was a momentous event and Churchill could not hide his glee at finally drawing America into the Great War, as this tipped the balance in favour of the Allies. (Churchill: 1970). A key event which not only determines the course of the Second World War but also the post-war alliance was drafting of the Atlantic Charter. Churchill had developed a personal rapport with the American President, Roosevelt. Drafting of the Charter was a triumph of Anglo American cooperation. The declaration included provisions as no territorial aggrandizement or changes by the alliance partners, right of people to choose the form of government, fair and equitable distribution of resources and creation of peace and stability within nations as also on the high seas. (Churchill: 1970). The United Nations was thus formed after the war and a number of nations freed from colonial dominance.

Case Study for the Complete Care Repair Research Paper

Case Study for the Complete Care Repair - Research Paper Example Research Problem The research problem has many angles because there are several problems with MindWriter. Some of the problems that have been seen are discussed here: There is a call center that is able to answer questions for customers who have a malfunctioning product. They have an 800 number to call and the call center can answer service, support and ordering questions. Unfortunately these are the only questions they can currently answer. When a person calls in, the call center must take the name, number and address from the customer as well as the Mind Writer model number. The technical representatives with this information will then ask question to understand more clearly the nature of the customer’s problem. They will attempt to resolve the problem on the phone if they can. The challenge is that they cannot answer every inquiry on the phone. Some of the things that need to be researched include: 1. There are employee shortages and training new technical representatives i s time consuming and does not always happen in the time that they are needed. 2. The courier does not always pick up and deliver the products as they have spelled out in the contract with Complete Care Repair. 3. ... Complete Care Repair will need to research to find where the problem really is and do something more to help it. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to define how Complete Care Repair can help MindWriter understand their problems and eradicate them. Some of the issues they will need to understand better in order to help MindWriter include: 1. Check with the courier company and see whether this is the best one for MindWriter to use. 2. Will the repair aspects of Complete Care Repair that include the diagnostic and sequencing areas need to be refined? 3. Does the technical director need more training or is there a need for the staff to have more training in this area? 4. Is there a problem with packaging? Can it be resolved if there is a different type of package created? 5. Is there a need for repair centers closer to where MindWriter operations are or should repair happen on site? These questions will guide the research into how Complete Care Repair can help MindWriter. Research Objectives Then research objectives will be to find out more information about MindWriter in order to help them. Specifically, there needs to be a thorough examination of the entire company in order to identify the problem areas. After Myra and Jason came back from Austin, they were able to identify several areas where there were problems. These areas need to be examined more closely. The research objectives will include: 1. To examine the call center to understand how they work with customers. We will want to identify what is working and what is not working. 2. To examine the packaging to see whether this is the most appropriate packaging or whether there are alternatives that would keep the

Indian and Australian Cultural beliefs and tradition on Death and Essay

Indian and Australian Cultural beliefs and tradition on Death and Dying Practices from the Nursing Perspective - Essay Example On the other hand, in the Australian culture, or in particular the culture of the Christians, death is viewed as the beginning of everlasting life with God. Though different concepts about death and the process associated with dying prevail, birth and death are the two aspects of life which will happen to everyone. Thus providing the medical care for the patients as they step into the final stage of their life is a stressful and at the same time heart breaking situation for the families. Under such drastic circumstances, medical personnel particularly the nurses play a major role in providing a comfort level for the patients and the family members associated with them. It is also considered to be one of the prime responsibilities of the nurse to balance the emotional feelings of the patients with their complex medical needs at the dying stage. Generally people who are in their death beds need the end-of-life treatment by the critical care nurses. â€Å"Critical care nurses provide c are to patients who fail to respond to treatments offered to support and prolong life.† (Efstathiou and Clifford, 2011). ... This paper will discuss the Indian and Australian cultural beliefs regarding death and the events associated with dying from the nursing perspective. It will also include how understanding the culture and the traditional beliefs can support the nurse to render a palliative approach to the people who are dying and for their families. Comparison of the cultures and accordingly the nurses’ role: Although, Indian culture is diverse as India is home to number of religions and their related culture, with Hindus being the majority, their culture is viewed as the common thread of the Indian culture. In most of the families following the Indian culture, the basic healthcare decisions are made by the senior most member of the patient’s family. Thus, it would be better for the nurses to approach that particular individual, when decisions have to be taken regarding crucial medical as well as personal issues. People in Indian culture are mostly family oriented, having strong relatio nships with a extended family circle and so the patients may have constant flow of visitors at any given point of time. Nurses have to understand this tradition or practice, and take steps to allow the patient visits by the relatives and friends, without affecting the treatment or even the comfort of the patients. In addition, the nurse who cares for the Hindu patients at home or at hospital to assist the relatives in the way of singing, chanting, praying, reading from holy books, etc. Importantly, the patients themselves would always want their family by their side and so the nurses who attend to the dying patients should encourage the peer groups for the patients and the families for coping with the eventuality. Above all, they should empathize for

Impact of the invention of Automobiles Essay Example for Free

Impact of the invention of Automobiles Essay The invention of automobile has been one of the most significant factors that have contributed towards the transformation of the world. Before the invention of automobile it was very difficult and time consuming to travel from one place to another. Man has become the master of his own time due to the automobile. Now he can plan his own schedules and manage his time more efficiently and constructively. Automobile gave a boost to the world economy. Petroleum was a product that was in abundance but was largely unused. With the invention of automobile it started getting used and also boosted the living standards of the people of the countries in which it is available the most for e.g. the Middle Eastern countries. Though there was enough living space in all the continents of the world, people used to live clustered in the locality that was nearest to their work. As a result those working in factories used to live close to it despite the health hazards it created. With the invention of the automobile people were able to cut down their health risks by moving away to cleaner places with better air to breathe and yet manage to report to work within the stipulated time minus any hassles that earlier long distance traveling encompassed. All the services got fast. The firemen, the doctor, and the policeman can all reach on time and get on with their work that is extremely urgent. Many newer services got created for e.g. the courier service that thrives on the benefits laid down by the invention of automobile. Hence the socio-economic condition of the world has got totally and positively transformed with the invention of the automobile. But sadly there have also been certain negative outcomes of the invention of the automobile. The number of deaths on roads has increased due to this modern necessity. Also the world has become a much more polluted place to live in because of the toxic fumes that automobiles create. However, if we compare the negative and positive impacts of the invention of automobile on the world at large then we cannot deny the fact that the positive impacts outshine the negative impacts. The best part is that if human beings are careful then these negative impacts can be shunned completely. Man cannot think living without the automobile and perhaps its invention is the best thing that has happened to the world. References Colorado.edu. (2009). Negative Impact of the Automobile. Retrieved Jun. 1, 2009 from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://l3d.cs.colorado.edu/systems/agentsheets/New-Vista/automobile/negative.html Nosotoro, R. (2007). Impact of the Automobile. Retrieved Jun. 1, 2009 from   Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.hyperhistory.net/apwh/essays/cot/t4w32automobile.htm

HRM and Staff Turnover in the Hospitality Industry

HRM and Staff Turnover in the Hospitality Industry CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale Findings show extensive existing research in the field of Human Resource Management (HRM) practices and how they might benefit an organisations business performance. Academics suggest that there is a series or bundle of human resource (HR) practices which are of great benefit to an organisation, for example, selection and recruitment, training and development, without giving any consideration to other contingency factors, such as the size, structure or varying labour markets of an organisation (Pfeffer, 1994a; 1998b; Huselid, 1995 cited in Gonzalez and Tacorante, 2004). This is known as the best practice approach to HRM. There is also a different contingent approach, known as the best-fit approach, which is dependent upon the organisations strategic focus, suggesting that it is more beneficial for an organisation to use HR practices which are more aligned with its strategies and external environment (Legge in Storey, 2001). These two approaches will be discussed in more detail in Cha pter 2. Although the literature in the field of HRM shows a positive correlation between employee perceptions of HRM fairness and employee acceptance and satisfaction with HRM decisions (Bowen et al., 1999), there is a gap in the research when it comes to a direct link between HRM and staff turnover and more research is needed to support an assertion that good HRM within an organisation leads to a greater retention of front office staff. Although the hospitality industry has experienced almost continuous growth since the 1900s, poor staff retention has always been a problem in the industry. The Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) (2009) state that the highest levels of labour turnover are found in the service sector and in the hotel and catering industry in particular (www.cipd.co.uk, 2009). Research points to various reasons for this such as lack of training, development and career opportunities. The term front office refers to organisations departments which come into contact with their customers such as the reception area of a hotel, which might consist of a receptionist, reception supervisor and perhaps a revenue or finance manager in some smaller establishments. It is the authors own experience, from working in the hotel industry, that many front office employees possess certain characteristics which render them more susceptible to a high level of turnover and examples of these will be discussed below. In addition, the author has found that front office employees generally do not receive the same HR configuration as some of their counterparts. For these reasons, the author has seen fit to investigate further the extent to which poor HRM practices affect turnover for front office staff in the hospitality industry. 1.2 Aim The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate two of the main problems in the hospitality industry: poor HRM practices and high staff turnover and the existence of a direct link between these working on the hypothesis that sound HRM practices should significantly reduce staff turnover. 1.3 Objectives To critically review current HRM practices in the hospitality industry, looking specifically at selection and recruitment and training and development, which are seen to have the greatest impact on staff turnover, highlighting the reasons why poor HRM practices might affect staff retention. To provide a definition of staff turnover and discuss the main causes of high staff turnover within the hospitality industry. To investigate the characteristics of front office staff, looking closely at the work of Lepack and Snell (1999a; 2002b) regarding Human Resource Architecture, with the aim of showing that front office staff receive a different HR configuration to other employees who might be seen as more important to an organisation. 1.4 Methodology Research is briefly defined as a form of systematic enquiry that contributes to knowledge (Altinay and Paraskevas, 2008:1) and in the case of this dissertation was used to identify new and better ways of managing within the hospitality industry. After reflecting on experience the author decided to investigate further the area of HRM practices and staff turnover, once the research area was decided the author then had to choose the research method which best suited the research question. Saunders suggests that most research questions are answered using some combination of secondary and primary research (Saunders et al., 2003:189). However, the author of this dissertation takes the view that that there is sufficient secondary data available to achieve the aims and objectives stated above and it is therefore based solely on secondary research drawing on existing sources alone. Work by academics in the area of HRM, for example, Lashley (1998); Boxall (2008); Hoque (2000); Purcell (2001a; 2008b); Torrington, Hall and Taylor (1991); Mullins (1998); Lucas (2004); Armstrong (1987a; 1992b; 2000c); Storey (1992a; 1995b; 2001c); and Guest (1987a; 1989b) will be analysed to provide a base to the theory of HRM. Data from government sources, for example, People1st, will be used as further evidence to back up the authors findings. The main advantage of secondary research is that it saves time and money (Ghauri and Gronhaugh, 2002). Secondary data can be obtained much more quickly than primary data and time is the only cost incurred. Secondary data facilitates the analysis of larger data sets, such as those collected by government surveys (Saunders et al, 2003). It is readily available and generally of proven reliability. Stewart and Kimes (1993) suggest that the quality of data in secondary research is likely to be far superior to that obtained through primary research as secondary data is permanent and more open to public scrutiny. Secondary information offers relatively quick and inexpensive answers to many questions and is almost always the point of departure for primary research (Stewart et al., 1993:1). However, it is important to recognise that secondary data does have a number of disadvantages. It may well have been collected for a specific purpose differing, either substantively or in emphasis, from the research question and this dissertations objectives. It might also reflect the attitudes of those collecting it rather than offer an objective picture of reality (Saunders et al., 2003:203). In addition, the secondary data may be outdated. Wrenn et al (2007) suggest that old information may not necessarily be bad information, but that up-to-date information is an absolute necessity (Wrenn et al., 2007:73). The author has attempted to overcome weaknesses of the secondary research method by using secondary data that is both current and closely related in emphasis to this dissertations title, aim and objectives. As the author aimed to analyse a large data set instead of concentrating on a smaller sample, for example, one organisation in particular, it was decided that secondary research would be more appropriate for this type of study. 1.5 Structure Chapter 2 reviews the literature on HRM history, approaches, theories, strategies and practices. Views of prominent academics in the field of HRM are summarised, critically analysed and evaluated. Chapter 3 defines the different types of staff turnover which occur within an organisation, identifying drivers and costs associated with high staff turnover. Characteristics of the hospitality industry, which may make it particularly vulnerable to poor staff retention, are identified. Chapter 4 reviews some of the key HRM practices being used in the hotel industry, focusing on selection and recruitment methods and training and development techniques, explaining how they affect staff turnover. Red Carnation Hotels are used as an example to show the impact the implementation of an effective training programme has on levels of employee turnover. Chapter 5 investigates Lepack and Snells (1999a; 2002b) work on Human Resource Architecture, showing that staff turnover levels in different departments might be attributable to different HR configurations. Chapter 6 concludes that good HRM practices can greatly reduce staff turnover and recommendations for improved staff turnover are made. CHAPTER 2 THE THEORY BEHIND HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND SOME KEY PRACTICES 2.1 Introduction This chapter reviews the literature on HRM theory, providing a brief overview of HRMs history and its similarities with personnel management. The hard and soft approaches to HRM are compared and contrasted, as are the best fit and best practice strategies. 2.2 Human Resource Management HRM is a management strategy which aims positively to influence individual ability and motivation and afford employees the opportunity to perform to the best of their abilities. (Blumberg and Pringle, 1982; Campbell, McCloy, Oppler and Sager, 1993 cited in Boxall and Purcell, 2008). Whilst Boella and Goss-Turner (2005) attempt to define HRM simply as a strategic management function aimed at determining and achieving managerial goals, Storey (2001) provides the clearest definition of HRM:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A distinctive approach to employment management which seeks to achieve competitive advantage through the strategic deployment of a highly committed and capable workforce, using an integrated array of cultural, structural and personnel techniques. (Storey 2001:6) HRM emerged as a new concept in the 1980s in the USA, promoted by such academics as Beer, Spector, Lawrence, Quinn Mills and Walton (1984) from the Harvard School and other influential writers who argued in favour of a more comprehensive and strategic approach to an organisations workforce (Armstrong, 1992). It quickly spread to the UK. Bratton and Gold (2003) state that HRM assumed new prominence due to concerns about global competition, the internationalization of technology and the productivity of labour (Bratton and Gold, 2003:4), all of which required managers to change the way in which organisations used their human resources and managed the employment relationship. The increased influence of trade unions and the continued growth of organisations in general, led to greater importance being placed on the personnel function of management. Prompted by economic trends and views of influential writers at the time, such as Pascale and Athos (1981), Peters and Waterman (1982), Kanter (1984) and Porter (1985), along with those from the Harvard School, chief executives began to realise that to gain, and retain, competitive advantage, human resources must be properly managed. Cuming (1993) suggests that employees are in fact the most important resource available to an organisation if organisational success is to be achieved. HRM enables an organisation to achieve goals through its workforce, whilst integrating human resource policies and business plans. Effective HRM should create a working environment in which all employees can be utilised to their full capacity and potential. It plays an important role in building the capabilities of a workforce and improving the general climate of employee attitudes (Boxall and Purcell, 2008) and aims to ensure commitment from individuals in order to achieve success for the organisation (Guest 1987). Academics have conflicting views on the meaning of HRM, some doubting its existence altogether. Fowler (1987), for example, believes that HRM is nothing more than a construct largely invented by academics and popularised by consultants (Fowler 1987 cited in Armstrong, 1999:586), while Woods (1999) claims that HRM is a paradox which has never really been mastered. Many academics are unable to make a clear distinction between HRM and personnel management (Armstrong, 1987; Sisson and Bach, 1989a; 1994b, 2000c; Legge, 1995; Torrington and Hall, 1998), while others are able to easily identify differences between them. The best way to conceptualise them, however, is as a continuum with personnel management at one end and HRM at the other (Wilson, 2001:47). Their differences and similarities can be found summarised in Table 1. 2.3 Hard and Soft HRM There are two approaches to HRM, each of which aims to provide an organisation with a competitive advantage. Storey (1992) and Guest (1987) were the first writers to make the distinction suggesting that the emphasis could either be on human or resources. In the UK, the two approaches are known as hard and soft HRM. The hard approach to HRM stresses the need for business orientated style, with an emphasis on productivity, efficiency in the utilisation of human resources and the achievement of business goals (Boella and Goss-Turner, 2005:23). Nickson (2007) describes the hard approach as instrumental and economically rational (Nickson 2007:9), aiming to gain a competitive advantage whilst keeping labour costs to a minimum. Armstrong (1992) suggests that the hard approach to HRM treats employees like any other resource, for instance land or capital, to be used as managers see fit. However, this approach does not necessarily mean that employees will be treated badly. Marchington and Wilkinson (2002) suggest that if labour is in short supply or is central to the achievement of organisational goals, employees may be treated well. For the hard approach to be most effective, the staffing structure of an organisation must mirror its needs. It is essential that an organisation has the right number of staff in the right place at the right time (Wilson, 2005). The HRM practice of human resource planning is therefore crucial (Mullins, 1998). The alternative approach, soft HRM, stresses the human aspects of HRM (Price, 2007) focussing particularly on communication and motivation. Training and development programmes as well as commitment strategies are used with the aim of producing highly skilled employees in order to gain a competitive advantage (Bratton and Gold, 2003). A soft HRM approach puts staff at the centre of determining and realising strategic objectives and staff are led rather than managed to achieve organisational success. Storey (1992) states that Soft HRM sees employees as a valuable resource whose competencies, skills and attitudes are to be appropriately nurtured (Storey, 1992:28). The organisation and its workforce work together towards a competitive advantage, the organisation aiming to improve the quality of its staff in the hope that it will reap the rewards of their development. The soft approach is based on the premise that if employees feel they have been treated well, they will do all they can to achieve organisational goals. Although some authors, for example Sisson (1994), argue that organisations claiming to use a soft HRM approach may just be using the language to disguise what is actually a hard approach, similarities have been drawn between a soft HRM approach and personnel management, as organisations use employees to achieve a competitive advantage through developing their skills and loyalty. 2.4 The best practice or best fit approach to HRM There are two fundamental HR strategies which are used to ensure that the effects of HR practices are maximised. The best practice approach is generally agreed to comprise a list of tangible practices, with best practice HRM or bundles of practices having the greatest impact on performance (Pfeffer,1994a; 1998b; Huselid,1995; Wood, 1995; Patterson et al, 1998; Guest, 2001).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Best practice approach is based on the assumption that there is a set of best HRM practices and that adopting them will inevitably lead to superior organisational performance. (Armstrong 2000:135) The best fit model on the other hand is based on the principle that HR strategy will be more effective when appropriately integrated within the specific firm and environmental context (Boxall and Purcell, 2001) Writers suggest that there is a bundle of practices essential to the HR effective strategy of any organisation. These include practices discussed in more detail below, such as selection and recruitment, and training and development. Others may be more marginal as they do not necessarily have general application, for instance, family friendly policies, profit related pay and share ownership (Guest, 2001; Torrington et al, 1999a; 2002b; 2005c). The importance of deploying these practices in the correct manner must, however, be stressed. Simply employing them without the correct management may have a negative effect on an organisation and its retention of human resources. Critics of the best practice strategy argue that, as organisations vary in size, compete in different labour markets and have varying market strategies, what works for one organisation might not necessarily work as well for another. Organisations work systems are highly idiosyncratic (Becker et al, 1997 cited in Ingham, 2007:78) with optimum results only being achieved if practices are tailored carefully to each individual situation. Larger organisations, for instance, are more likely than smaller entities to adopt more sophisticated staffing and training procedures and to have a more structured workforce with more specialised jobs and defined career hierarchies. They inevitably require therefore more formalised HR practices to facilitate the management of larger numbers (Schuler and Jackson 1995). The concept of fit between business and HR policy is based on the assumption that if HRM is more contingent with the external environment and an organisations business strategy, it will lead to higher performance and competitive advantage (Legge cited in Storey, 2001). The best fit approach ensures that HR strategies are aligned with the culture and operational process of an organisation as well as the external environment. Armstrong suggests that this is one of the most important aims in a development programme (Armstrong 2000:132). 2.5 HRM practices Recruitment and selection procedures (Bonn and Forbringer 1992; Woods and Mcaulay 1989; Wagner 1991; Wheelhouse 1989) and training and development opportunities (Hogan 1992; Himestra 1990; Conrade et al., 1994) have been identified as having the biggest impact on staff turnover and are explored in detail in Chapter 4. Mullins (1995) recognises that the aim of any organisation must be to select the best available staff in the first place, train and develop them and to retain them for a reasonable period of time (Mullins 1995:183). Through the use of various intervention processes, for example, recruitment and selection and training and development, an organisation can influence turnover (Mullins, 1995 cited Cheng and Brown, 1998:138). This is consistent with literature which suggests that the use of high performance work practices, including recruitment and selection procedures and training, are associated with lower labour turnover, greater productivity and corporate financial performance (Huselid, 1995:635) However, before exploring recruitment and selection and training and development further it is important to mention some of the other key HRM practices used in the hospitality industry. HRM practices should cover five main areas: Staffing and recruitment; making sure that available jobs within an organisation are filled appropriately by staff with the required knowledge, experience, abilities and skills, whilst also deploying an effective retention programme. Rewards; carrying out regular appraisals and making sure that reward systems are in place as well as that staff benefit for achieving organisational goals. Employee development; ensuring that employees have the correct amount of training to enable them to do their job to the best of their abilities whilst enabling them to reach their full potential. Employee maintenance and job security; making sure that employees are working in a safe environment as well as offering support where redundancies are necessary. (Bratton and Gold, 1999; Mullins, 1998; Redman and Mathews, 1998 cited in Lucas 2004) It is also suggested that HRM practices should include team working, employee involvement, liaisons with outside bodies (ACAS, HCTC and HCIMA), maintaining statistics and records and dealing with trade unions (Redman and Mathews, 1998 cited in Lucas, 2004, Mullins, 1998). 2.6 Recruitment and Selection Recruitment and selection is an important element of HRM in all organisations regardless of size, structure or sector (Marchington et al., 2005) and is critical to the long-term success of every hospitality business (Hayes et al., 2009). In terms of the hotel industry, Kelliher and Johnson (1987, 1997) have suggested that recruitment is, in fact, HRMs central function. Recruitment is the process of identifying candidates for current or future position vacancies. It is Those practices and activities carried out by the organisation with the primary purpose of identifying and attracting potential employees (Barber, 1998:5 cited in Purcell et al., 2007:273; Hayes et al 2009:44). Selection is the process of choosing an individual for a current or future position vacancy (Hayes et al., 2009:44). Selection pares down the number of applicants while recruitment makes the paring down possible by producing the pool of candidates from whom new employees will be selected. However Recruitment and selection is generally viewed as an integrated function (Mullins, 1995; Croney, 1988; Nankervis, 1993b) and is considered as such in this dissertation. The recruitment and selection process is the first point of contact for potential employees, who will tend to judge the organisation as a whole by the manner in which it is conducted, as well as the first stage in the HRM value chain. This leads some specialists to the view that: effective recruitment is likely to be the most critical human resource function for organisational success and survival (Taylor and Collins, 2000:304 cited in Boxall et al., 2007:273). Managers must address a number of questions before they begin the recruitment and selection process for it to have the desired effect, particularly whom to target, where, how (web, newspapers, job fairs) and when and what message to communicate (Breaugh, 1992; Breaugh and Stake, 2000 cited in Boxall et al, 2007:274). Literature suggests that recruitment and selection techniques have progressed from purely traditional techniques (advertising, walk-ins, selection interviews, reference checking) towards more strategic approaches (networking, internal labour market, behavioural interviewing, targeted selection) (Nankarvis and Debrah, 1995; Nankarvis, 1993b). There has also been an increase in recruiting through informal methods (word-of-mouth networks, recruit a relative or friend incentives, keep warm contacts with past employees and speculative applicants). Evidence suggests that such incentives strengthen job satisfaction for both recruiter and recruited (Purcell and Rowley, 2001:183), which in turn reduces staff turnover. There are a number of potential implications of poor selection decisions: Managers may have to waste time on disciplinary procedures or retraining poor performers as well as recruiting replacements for those leaving the job soon after commencing employment. These processes are both expensive and time-consuming, possibly diverting managers from other tasks. Poor recruitment and selection techniques do not only lead to under-qualified staff being employed. Some may be over-qualified and decide to leave soon after starting the job (Marchington et al., 2005). 2.7 Training and Development Training and Development is another key HRM practice which, if performed effectively, can reduce staff turnover within an organisation. Pepper (1984) defines training as the organized process concerned with the acquisition of capability or the maintenance of capability (Pepper, 1984:9-11 cited in Wilson, 1999:118). It is also viewed as a service provided by an organisation for its internal customers- its employees (Lovelock, 1989 cited in Chiang et al, 2005:101). Wexley and Latham (1991) introduce development into their definition suggesting that training and development is a planned effort by an organisation to facilitate the learning of job related behaviour on the part of its employees (Wexley and Latham, 1991:3). Development can relate to future requirements, such as preparation for promotion, whilst training generally relates to the here and now. For the purposes of this dissertation, however, the two terms are considered synonymous. Training strategies can include the employment of skilled trainers and use of training manuals or videos as support tools. Training can be hands-on or may take the form of classroom training. In some cases, the two strategies may be used together with feedback being provided through evaluation and appraisals (Chiang, 2005:101). Training may be either formal and take place outside the organisation or informal, on the job, where observation and instruction occurs on site (Jones, 2004:127). An effective training plan requires a good training site, a qualified trainer with clear objectives and methods as well as the necessary training tools and an evaluation strategy (Tanke, 1990). Paynes (2004) suggests that the aim of any training plan must be to ensure that staff have the required knowledge, skills, abilities and characteristics to confront new challenges 2.8 Conclusion HRM has been defined and the conflicting views have been discussed as have the different approaches and strategies used in order to provide an overview of the topic of HRM. An overview of the key HRM practices has also been provided and those most relevant to the hospitality industry have been split into key areas. Although selection and recruitment and training and development are suggested to have the greatest impact on employee turnover, the literature suggests that other key HRM practices, such as reward schemes, employee maintenance, liaisons with outside bodies, maintaining statistics and records and dealing with trade unions, may also have a significant effect (Bratton and Gold 1999, Mullins 1998, Redman and Mathews 1998 and Lashley 1998). CHAPTER 3 STAFF TURNOVER 3.1 Introduction This Chapter explores the concept of staff turnover. Staff turnover is defined and a measure used to calculate turnover levels is discussed, along with its limitations. The characteristics of the Hospitality Industry are identified to show the extent to which they might make the industry more vulnerable to high staff turnover and turnover figures will be provided to support any assumptions that have been made. Some of the main reasons for high staff turnover in the industry will be considered looking in particular at some of the relevant push and pull factors. The cost and benefits of staff turnover will be weighed up to demonstrate the real need for the proper deployment of some of the HRM practices discussed in Chapter 2. 3.2 Definition of Staff Turnover The Hospitality Training Foundation (HtF) defines staff turnover as, the number of people leaving their job in a year as a percentage of the people employed in the industry (Hospitality Training Foundation, 1998 cited in Boella, 2005:178). Generally, turnover is measured over the financial year and is a measure of separations from an employing organisation. Organisations can use the following formula to calculate turnover rate in each department. Number of employees who left during the period X 100 Average number employed during the period Analysis of the turnover rate allows organisations not only to see whether they generally have a problem of high turnover but also to compare the rates of turnover between departments and to target workforce planning strategies accordingly. The calculation above is simple and is a broad indicator but it does have limitations. It does not reflect length of service of employees or whether or not the employer employs a few people at a high rate of pay or many people at a low rate of pay (Boella et al., 2000a; 2005b). The calculation also includes unavoidable turnover, for example, staff leaving due to illness, death or relocation and it may be beneficial to an organisation to create a measure which only measures avoidable turnover (Phillips, 2005). There are four types of turnover which occur within an organisation: voluntary; involuntary; functional and dysfunctional. The differences between them are summarised in Table 2. 3.3 Labour turnover in the Hospitality Industry Over the last 30 years the hospitality leisure and tourism sector has enjoyed a sustained period of growth and now accounts for nearly 5% of the UKs total economic output, employing 2 million people, 1/14 jobs in the UK. Labour turnover across the sector is the highest of all sectors of the economy, rising from 30% in 2005 to 31% in 2008 with recruitment and development of new staff costing an estimated  £414 million in 2008/2009 (Wisdom, 2009). A minority of employees in the hospitality industry are drawn from the primary labour market and as such are generally committed to the industry and sometimes to a particular sector within it. Riley (1996) estimates that 6% of jobs in the hospitality industry are managerial positions, 8% supervisory and 22% craft (Riley, 1996 cited in Kusluvan, 2003). The industry relies heavily, however, on the secondary labour market, which is made up of workers with skills which can be used across a number of industries, for example, secretaries, administrators and maintenance workers. Secondary labour markets do however approximate pretty closely in their characteristics to much of what happens in the industry in terms of the behaviour of employees and their treatment by employers (Goldsmith et al, 1997:16). Boella et al., (2005) suggests that these employees generally attach more importance to a geographical area rather than a career and choose to work in the industry purely to earn a living. The hospitality industry is particularly susceptible to high labour turnover because it is labour intensive and its pattern of staffing is characterised by high mobility, seasonal and part time work, with a high proportion of unskilled, young, part-time and casual staff. The proper use of HRM practices is therefore of great importance to the industry. 3.4 Reasons for staff turnover The greatest numbers of employees leave in the early days of employment, the period in which relationships have not yet developed. Mullins (1998) refers to such turnover as the induction crisis and suggests that it is particularly disruptive and costly. This early turnover is generally the result of improper selection systems, ineffective orientation and inadequate socialization process to adopt employees to the organisation (Phillips, 2005:185). As Torrington et al., (2005) point out, some departures from an organisation are unavoidable, for instance because of relocation, illness or the need to juggle work and family life. According to Lashley and Lincoln (2003), however, high labour turnover is usually due to avoidable causes, such as dissatisfaction with wages, the relationship with other staff or poor working hours, the majority of which can be addressed by effective management. Two broad categories influence staff turnover: work-related attitudes (push factors) and external environmental factors (pull factors) (McBey et al., 2001). Push factors are issues arising within an organisation, including uneven work patterns, poor pay, pe HRM and Staff Turnover in the Hospitality Industry HRM and Staff Turnover in the Hospitality Industry CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale Findings show extensive existing research in the field of Human Resource Management (HRM) practices and how they might benefit an organisations business performance. Academics suggest that there is a series or bundle of human resource (HR) practices which are of great benefit to an organisation, for example, selection and recruitment, training and development, without giving any consideration to other contingency factors, such as the size, structure or varying labour markets of an organisation (Pfeffer, 1994a; 1998b; Huselid, 1995 cited in Gonzalez and Tacorante, 2004). This is known as the best practice approach to HRM. There is also a different contingent approach, known as the best-fit approach, which is dependent upon the organisations strategic focus, suggesting that it is more beneficial for an organisation to use HR practices which are more aligned with its strategies and external environment (Legge in Storey, 2001). These two approaches will be discussed in more detail in Cha pter 2. Although the literature in the field of HRM shows a positive correlation between employee perceptions of HRM fairness and employee acceptance and satisfaction with HRM decisions (Bowen et al., 1999), there is a gap in the research when it comes to a direct link between HRM and staff turnover and more research is needed to support an assertion that good HRM within an organisation leads to a greater retention of front office staff. Although the hospitality industry has experienced almost continuous growth since the 1900s, poor staff retention has always been a problem in the industry. The Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) (2009) state that the highest levels of labour turnover are found in the service sector and in the hotel and catering industry in particular (www.cipd.co.uk, 2009). Research points to various reasons for this such as lack of training, development and career opportunities. The term front office refers to organisations departments which come into contact with their customers such as the reception area of a hotel, which might consist of a receptionist, reception supervisor and perhaps a revenue or finance manager in some smaller establishments. It is the authors own experience, from working in the hotel industry, that many front office employees possess certain characteristics which render them more susceptible to a high level of turnover and examples of these will be discussed below. In addition, the author has found that front office employees generally do not receive the same HR configuration as some of their counterparts. For these reasons, the author has seen fit to investigate further the extent to which poor HRM practices affect turnover for front office staff in the hospitality industry. 1.2 Aim The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate two of the main problems in the hospitality industry: poor HRM practices and high staff turnover and the existence of a direct link between these working on the hypothesis that sound HRM practices should significantly reduce staff turnover. 1.3 Objectives To critically review current HRM practices in the hospitality industry, looking specifically at selection and recruitment and training and development, which are seen to have the greatest impact on staff turnover, highlighting the reasons why poor HRM practices might affect staff retention. To provide a definition of staff turnover and discuss the main causes of high staff turnover within the hospitality industry. To investigate the characteristics of front office staff, looking closely at the work of Lepack and Snell (1999a; 2002b) regarding Human Resource Architecture, with the aim of showing that front office staff receive a different HR configuration to other employees who might be seen as more important to an organisation. 1.4 Methodology Research is briefly defined as a form of systematic enquiry that contributes to knowledge (Altinay and Paraskevas, 2008:1) and in the case of this dissertation was used to identify new and better ways of managing within the hospitality industry. After reflecting on experience the author decided to investigate further the area of HRM practices and staff turnover, once the research area was decided the author then had to choose the research method which best suited the research question. Saunders suggests that most research questions are answered using some combination of secondary and primary research (Saunders et al., 2003:189). However, the author of this dissertation takes the view that that there is sufficient secondary data available to achieve the aims and objectives stated above and it is therefore based solely on secondary research drawing on existing sources alone. Work by academics in the area of HRM, for example, Lashley (1998); Boxall (2008); Hoque (2000); Purcell (2001a; 2008b); Torrington, Hall and Taylor (1991); Mullins (1998); Lucas (2004); Armstrong (1987a; 1992b; 2000c); Storey (1992a; 1995b; 2001c); and Guest (1987a; 1989b) will be analysed to provide a base to the theory of HRM. Data from government sources, for example, People1st, will be used as further evidence to back up the authors findings. The main advantage of secondary research is that it saves time and money (Ghauri and Gronhaugh, 2002). Secondary data can be obtained much more quickly than primary data and time is the only cost incurred. Secondary data facilitates the analysis of larger data sets, such as those collected by government surveys (Saunders et al, 2003). It is readily available and generally of proven reliability. Stewart and Kimes (1993) suggest that the quality of data in secondary research is likely to be far superior to that obtained through primary research as secondary data is permanent and more open to public scrutiny. Secondary information offers relatively quick and inexpensive answers to many questions and is almost always the point of departure for primary research (Stewart et al., 1993:1). However, it is important to recognise that secondary data does have a number of disadvantages. It may well have been collected for a specific purpose differing, either substantively or in emphasis, from the research question and this dissertations objectives. It might also reflect the attitudes of those collecting it rather than offer an objective picture of reality (Saunders et al., 2003:203). In addition, the secondary data may be outdated. Wrenn et al (2007) suggest that old information may not necessarily be bad information, but that up-to-date information is an absolute necessity (Wrenn et al., 2007:73). The author has attempted to overcome weaknesses of the secondary research method by using secondary data that is both current and closely related in emphasis to this dissertations title, aim and objectives. As the author aimed to analyse a large data set instead of concentrating on a smaller sample, for example, one organisation in particular, it was decided that secondary research would be more appropriate for this type of study. 1.5 Structure Chapter 2 reviews the literature on HRM history, approaches, theories, strategies and practices. Views of prominent academics in the field of HRM are summarised, critically analysed and evaluated. Chapter 3 defines the different types of staff turnover which occur within an organisation, identifying drivers and costs associated with high staff turnover. Characteristics of the hospitality industry, which may make it particularly vulnerable to poor staff retention, are identified. Chapter 4 reviews some of the key HRM practices being used in the hotel industry, focusing on selection and recruitment methods and training and development techniques, explaining how they affect staff turnover. Red Carnation Hotels are used as an example to show the impact the implementation of an effective training programme has on levels of employee turnover. Chapter 5 investigates Lepack and Snells (1999a; 2002b) work on Human Resource Architecture, showing that staff turnover levels in different departments might be attributable to different HR configurations. Chapter 6 concludes that good HRM practices can greatly reduce staff turnover and recommendations for improved staff turnover are made. CHAPTER 2 THE THEORY BEHIND HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND SOME KEY PRACTICES 2.1 Introduction This chapter reviews the literature on HRM theory, providing a brief overview of HRMs history and its similarities with personnel management. The hard and soft approaches to HRM are compared and contrasted, as are the best fit and best practice strategies. 2.2 Human Resource Management HRM is a management strategy which aims positively to influence individual ability and motivation and afford employees the opportunity to perform to the best of their abilities. (Blumberg and Pringle, 1982; Campbell, McCloy, Oppler and Sager, 1993 cited in Boxall and Purcell, 2008). Whilst Boella and Goss-Turner (2005) attempt to define HRM simply as a strategic management function aimed at determining and achieving managerial goals, Storey (2001) provides the clearest definition of HRM:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A distinctive approach to employment management which seeks to achieve competitive advantage through the strategic deployment of a highly committed and capable workforce, using an integrated array of cultural, structural and personnel techniques. (Storey 2001:6) HRM emerged as a new concept in the 1980s in the USA, promoted by such academics as Beer, Spector, Lawrence, Quinn Mills and Walton (1984) from the Harvard School and other influential writers who argued in favour of a more comprehensive and strategic approach to an organisations workforce (Armstrong, 1992). It quickly spread to the UK. Bratton and Gold (2003) state that HRM assumed new prominence due to concerns about global competition, the internationalization of technology and the productivity of labour (Bratton and Gold, 2003:4), all of which required managers to change the way in which organisations used their human resources and managed the employment relationship. The increased influence of trade unions and the continued growth of organisations in general, led to greater importance being placed on the personnel function of management. Prompted by economic trends and views of influential writers at the time, such as Pascale and Athos (1981), Peters and Waterman (1982), Kanter (1984) and Porter (1985), along with those from the Harvard School, chief executives began to realise that to gain, and retain, competitive advantage, human resources must be properly managed. Cuming (1993) suggests that employees are in fact the most important resource available to an organisation if organisational success is to be achieved. HRM enables an organisation to achieve goals through its workforce, whilst integrating human resource policies and business plans. Effective HRM should create a working environment in which all employees can be utilised to their full capacity and potential. It plays an important role in building the capabilities of a workforce and improving the general climate of employee attitudes (Boxall and Purcell, 2008) and aims to ensure commitment from individuals in order to achieve success for the organisation (Guest 1987). Academics have conflicting views on the meaning of HRM, some doubting its existence altogether. Fowler (1987), for example, believes that HRM is nothing more than a construct largely invented by academics and popularised by consultants (Fowler 1987 cited in Armstrong, 1999:586), while Woods (1999) claims that HRM is a paradox which has never really been mastered. Many academics are unable to make a clear distinction between HRM and personnel management (Armstrong, 1987; Sisson and Bach, 1989a; 1994b, 2000c; Legge, 1995; Torrington and Hall, 1998), while others are able to easily identify differences between them. The best way to conceptualise them, however, is as a continuum with personnel management at one end and HRM at the other (Wilson, 2001:47). Their differences and similarities can be found summarised in Table 1. 2.3 Hard and Soft HRM There are two approaches to HRM, each of which aims to provide an organisation with a competitive advantage. Storey (1992) and Guest (1987) were the first writers to make the distinction suggesting that the emphasis could either be on human or resources. In the UK, the two approaches are known as hard and soft HRM. The hard approach to HRM stresses the need for business orientated style, with an emphasis on productivity, efficiency in the utilisation of human resources and the achievement of business goals (Boella and Goss-Turner, 2005:23). Nickson (2007) describes the hard approach as instrumental and economically rational (Nickson 2007:9), aiming to gain a competitive advantage whilst keeping labour costs to a minimum. Armstrong (1992) suggests that the hard approach to HRM treats employees like any other resource, for instance land or capital, to be used as managers see fit. However, this approach does not necessarily mean that employees will be treated badly. Marchington and Wilkinson (2002) suggest that if labour is in short supply or is central to the achievement of organisational goals, employees may be treated well. For the hard approach to be most effective, the staffing structure of an organisation must mirror its needs. It is essential that an organisation has the right number of staff in the right place at the right time (Wilson, 2005). The HRM practice of human resource planning is therefore crucial (Mullins, 1998). The alternative approach, soft HRM, stresses the human aspects of HRM (Price, 2007) focussing particularly on communication and motivation. Training and development programmes as well as commitment strategies are used with the aim of producing highly skilled employees in order to gain a competitive advantage (Bratton and Gold, 2003). A soft HRM approach puts staff at the centre of determining and realising strategic objectives and staff are led rather than managed to achieve organisational success. Storey (1992) states that Soft HRM sees employees as a valuable resource whose competencies, skills and attitudes are to be appropriately nurtured (Storey, 1992:28). The organisation and its workforce work together towards a competitive advantage, the organisation aiming to improve the quality of its staff in the hope that it will reap the rewards of their development. The soft approach is based on the premise that if employees feel they have been treated well, they will do all they can to achieve organisational goals. Although some authors, for example Sisson (1994), argue that organisations claiming to use a soft HRM approach may just be using the language to disguise what is actually a hard approach, similarities have been drawn between a soft HRM approach and personnel management, as organisations use employees to achieve a competitive advantage through developing their skills and loyalty. 2.4 The best practice or best fit approach to HRM There are two fundamental HR strategies which are used to ensure that the effects of HR practices are maximised. The best practice approach is generally agreed to comprise a list of tangible practices, with best practice HRM or bundles of practices having the greatest impact on performance (Pfeffer,1994a; 1998b; Huselid,1995; Wood, 1995; Patterson et al, 1998; Guest, 2001).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Best practice approach is based on the assumption that there is a set of best HRM practices and that adopting them will inevitably lead to superior organisational performance. (Armstrong 2000:135) The best fit model on the other hand is based on the principle that HR strategy will be more effective when appropriately integrated within the specific firm and environmental context (Boxall and Purcell, 2001) Writers suggest that there is a bundle of practices essential to the HR effective strategy of any organisation. These include practices discussed in more detail below, such as selection and recruitment, and training and development. Others may be more marginal as they do not necessarily have general application, for instance, family friendly policies, profit related pay and share ownership (Guest, 2001; Torrington et al, 1999a; 2002b; 2005c). The importance of deploying these practices in the correct manner must, however, be stressed. Simply employing them without the correct management may have a negative effect on an organisation and its retention of human resources. Critics of the best practice strategy argue that, as organisations vary in size, compete in different labour markets and have varying market strategies, what works for one organisation might not necessarily work as well for another. Organisations work systems are highly idiosyncratic (Becker et al, 1997 cited in Ingham, 2007:78) with optimum results only being achieved if practices are tailored carefully to each individual situation. Larger organisations, for instance, are more likely than smaller entities to adopt more sophisticated staffing and training procedures and to have a more structured workforce with more specialised jobs and defined career hierarchies. They inevitably require therefore more formalised HR practices to facilitate the management of larger numbers (Schuler and Jackson 1995). The concept of fit between business and HR policy is based on the assumption that if HRM is more contingent with the external environment and an organisations business strategy, it will lead to higher performance and competitive advantage (Legge cited in Storey, 2001). The best fit approach ensures that HR strategies are aligned with the culture and operational process of an organisation as well as the external environment. Armstrong suggests that this is one of the most important aims in a development programme (Armstrong 2000:132). 2.5 HRM practices Recruitment and selection procedures (Bonn and Forbringer 1992; Woods and Mcaulay 1989; Wagner 1991; Wheelhouse 1989) and training and development opportunities (Hogan 1992; Himestra 1990; Conrade et al., 1994) have been identified as having the biggest impact on staff turnover and are explored in detail in Chapter 4. Mullins (1995) recognises that the aim of any organisation must be to select the best available staff in the first place, train and develop them and to retain them for a reasonable period of time (Mullins 1995:183). Through the use of various intervention processes, for example, recruitment and selection and training and development, an organisation can influence turnover (Mullins, 1995 cited Cheng and Brown, 1998:138). This is consistent with literature which suggests that the use of high performance work practices, including recruitment and selection procedures and training, are associated with lower labour turnover, greater productivity and corporate financial performance (Huselid, 1995:635) However, before exploring recruitment and selection and training and development further it is important to mention some of the other key HRM practices used in the hospitality industry. HRM practices should cover five main areas: Staffing and recruitment; making sure that available jobs within an organisation are filled appropriately by staff with the required knowledge, experience, abilities and skills, whilst also deploying an effective retention programme. Rewards; carrying out regular appraisals and making sure that reward systems are in place as well as that staff benefit for achieving organisational goals. Employee development; ensuring that employees have the correct amount of training to enable them to do their job to the best of their abilities whilst enabling them to reach their full potential. Employee maintenance and job security; making sure that employees are working in a safe environment as well as offering support where redundancies are necessary. (Bratton and Gold, 1999; Mullins, 1998; Redman and Mathews, 1998 cited in Lucas 2004) It is also suggested that HRM practices should include team working, employee involvement, liaisons with outside bodies (ACAS, HCTC and HCIMA), maintaining statistics and records and dealing with trade unions (Redman and Mathews, 1998 cited in Lucas, 2004, Mullins, 1998). 2.6 Recruitment and Selection Recruitment and selection is an important element of HRM in all organisations regardless of size, structure or sector (Marchington et al., 2005) and is critical to the long-term success of every hospitality business (Hayes et al., 2009). In terms of the hotel industry, Kelliher and Johnson (1987, 1997) have suggested that recruitment is, in fact, HRMs central function. Recruitment is the process of identifying candidates for current or future position vacancies. It is Those practices and activities carried out by the organisation with the primary purpose of identifying and attracting potential employees (Barber, 1998:5 cited in Purcell et al., 2007:273; Hayes et al 2009:44). Selection is the process of choosing an individual for a current or future position vacancy (Hayes et al., 2009:44). Selection pares down the number of applicants while recruitment makes the paring down possible by producing the pool of candidates from whom new employees will be selected. However Recruitment and selection is generally viewed as an integrated function (Mullins, 1995; Croney, 1988; Nankervis, 1993b) and is considered as such in this dissertation. The recruitment and selection process is the first point of contact for potential employees, who will tend to judge the organisation as a whole by the manner in which it is conducted, as well as the first stage in the HRM value chain. This leads some specialists to the view that: effective recruitment is likely to be the most critical human resource function for organisational success and survival (Taylor and Collins, 2000:304 cited in Boxall et al., 2007:273). Managers must address a number of questions before they begin the recruitment and selection process for it to have the desired effect, particularly whom to target, where, how (web, newspapers, job fairs) and when and what message to communicate (Breaugh, 1992; Breaugh and Stake, 2000 cited in Boxall et al, 2007:274). Literature suggests that recruitment and selection techniques have progressed from purely traditional techniques (advertising, walk-ins, selection interviews, reference checking) towards more strategic approaches (networking, internal labour market, behavioural interviewing, targeted selection) (Nankarvis and Debrah, 1995; Nankarvis, 1993b). There has also been an increase in recruiting through informal methods (word-of-mouth networks, recruit a relative or friend incentives, keep warm contacts with past employees and speculative applicants). Evidence suggests that such incentives strengthen job satisfaction for both recruiter and recruited (Purcell and Rowley, 2001:183), which in turn reduces staff turnover. There are a number of potential implications of poor selection decisions: Managers may have to waste time on disciplinary procedures or retraining poor performers as well as recruiting replacements for those leaving the job soon after commencing employment. These processes are both expensive and time-consuming, possibly diverting managers from other tasks. Poor recruitment and selection techniques do not only lead to under-qualified staff being employed. Some may be over-qualified and decide to leave soon after starting the job (Marchington et al., 2005). 2.7 Training and Development Training and Development is another key HRM practice which, if performed effectively, can reduce staff turnover within an organisation. Pepper (1984) defines training as the organized process concerned with the acquisition of capability or the maintenance of capability (Pepper, 1984:9-11 cited in Wilson, 1999:118). It is also viewed as a service provided by an organisation for its internal customers- its employees (Lovelock, 1989 cited in Chiang et al, 2005:101). Wexley and Latham (1991) introduce development into their definition suggesting that training and development is a planned effort by an organisation to facilitate the learning of job related behaviour on the part of its employees (Wexley and Latham, 1991:3). Development can relate to future requirements, such as preparation for promotion, whilst training generally relates to the here and now. For the purposes of this dissertation, however, the two terms are considered synonymous. Training strategies can include the employment of skilled trainers and use of training manuals or videos as support tools. Training can be hands-on or may take the form of classroom training. In some cases, the two strategies may be used together with feedback being provided through evaluation and appraisals (Chiang, 2005:101). Training may be either formal and take place outside the organisation or informal, on the job, where observation and instruction occurs on site (Jones, 2004:127). An effective training plan requires a good training site, a qualified trainer with clear objectives and methods as well as the necessary training tools and an evaluation strategy (Tanke, 1990). Paynes (2004) suggests that the aim of any training plan must be to ensure that staff have the required knowledge, skills, abilities and characteristics to confront new challenges 2.8 Conclusion HRM has been defined and the conflicting views have been discussed as have the different approaches and strategies used in order to provide an overview of the topic of HRM. An overview of the key HRM practices has also been provided and those most relevant to the hospitality industry have been split into key areas. Although selection and recruitment and training and development are suggested to have the greatest impact on employee turnover, the literature suggests that other key HRM practices, such as reward schemes, employee maintenance, liaisons with outside bodies, maintaining statistics and records and dealing with trade unions, may also have a significant effect (Bratton and Gold 1999, Mullins 1998, Redman and Mathews 1998 and Lashley 1998). CHAPTER 3 STAFF TURNOVER 3.1 Introduction This Chapter explores the concept of staff turnover. Staff turnover is defined and a measure used to calculate turnover levels is discussed, along with its limitations. The characteristics of the Hospitality Industry are identified to show the extent to which they might make the industry more vulnerable to high staff turnover and turnover figures will be provided to support any assumptions that have been made. Some of the main reasons for high staff turnover in the industry will be considered looking in particular at some of the relevant push and pull factors. The cost and benefits of staff turnover will be weighed up to demonstrate the real need for the proper deployment of some of the HRM practices discussed in Chapter 2. 3.2 Definition of Staff Turnover The Hospitality Training Foundation (HtF) defines staff turnover as, the number of people leaving their job in a year as a percentage of the people employed in the industry (Hospitality Training Foundation, 1998 cited in Boella, 2005:178). Generally, turnover is measured over the financial year and is a measure of separations from an employing organisation. Organisations can use the following formula to calculate turnover rate in each department. Number of employees who left during the period X 100 Average number employed during the period Analysis of the turnover rate allows organisations not only to see whether they generally have a problem of high turnover but also to compare the rates of turnover between departments and to target workforce planning strategies accordingly. The calculation above is simple and is a broad indicator but it does have limitations. It does not reflect length of service of employees or whether or not the employer employs a few people at a high rate of pay or many people at a low rate of pay (Boella et al., 2000a; 2005b). The calculation also includes unavoidable turnover, for example, staff leaving due to illness, death or relocation and it may be beneficial to an organisation to create a measure which only measures avoidable turnover (Phillips, 2005). There are four types of turnover which occur within an organisation: voluntary; involuntary; functional and dysfunctional. The differences between them are summarised in Table 2. 3.3 Labour turnover in the Hospitality Industry Over the last 30 years the hospitality leisure and tourism sector has enjoyed a sustained period of growth and now accounts for nearly 5% of the UKs total economic output, employing 2 million people, 1/14 jobs in the UK. Labour turnover across the sector is the highest of all sectors of the economy, rising from 30% in 2005 to 31% in 2008 with recruitment and development of new staff costing an estimated  £414 million in 2008/2009 (Wisdom, 2009). A minority of employees in the hospitality industry are drawn from the primary labour market and as such are generally committed to the industry and sometimes to a particular sector within it. Riley (1996) estimates that 6% of jobs in the hospitality industry are managerial positions, 8% supervisory and 22% craft (Riley, 1996 cited in Kusluvan, 2003). The industry relies heavily, however, on the secondary labour market, which is made up of workers with skills which can be used across a number of industries, for example, secretaries, administrators and maintenance workers. Secondary labour markets do however approximate pretty closely in their characteristics to much of what happens in the industry in terms of the behaviour of employees and their treatment by employers (Goldsmith et al, 1997:16). Boella et al., (2005) suggests that these employees generally attach more importance to a geographical area rather than a career and choose to work in the industry purely to earn a living. The hospitality industry is particularly susceptible to high labour turnover because it is labour intensive and its pattern of staffing is characterised by high mobility, seasonal and part time work, with a high proportion of unskilled, young, part-time and casual staff. The proper use of HRM practices is therefore of great importance to the industry. 3.4 Reasons for staff turnover The greatest numbers of employees leave in the early days of employment, the period in which relationships have not yet developed. Mullins (1998) refers to such turnover as the induction crisis and suggests that it is particularly disruptive and costly. This early turnover is generally the result of improper selection systems, ineffective orientation and inadequate socialization process to adopt employees to the organisation (Phillips, 2005:185). As Torrington et al., (2005) point out, some departures from an organisation are unavoidable, for instance because of relocation, illness or the need to juggle work and family life. According to Lashley and Lincoln (2003), however, high labour turnover is usually due to avoidable causes, such as dissatisfaction with wages, the relationship with other staff or poor working hours, the majority of which can be addressed by effective management. Two broad categories influence staff turnover: work-related attitudes (push factors) and external environmental factors (pull factors) (McBey et al., 2001). Push factors are issues arising within an organisation, including uneven work patterns, poor pay, pe